PSY 475 Child Psychology

Made for PSY 475 Child Psychology at NC State

Nativist

School of thought on human nature that believes children are born with certain innate capabilities and knowledge

Empiricist

School of thought on human nature that believes children are ‘sponges’ that are constantly learning via processing their environment

Sex Differences

The idea that male and female children behave differently due to organic causes

Nature vs Nurture

The basic question of child psychology that asks whether genetics or the environment has more of an impact on one’s development

The Active Child

The basic concept of child psychology that states children naturally want to engage with their environment to gain attention, develop the use of language, and play

Continuity vs Discontuity

The basic question of child psychology that asks if development occurs in large occasional shifts (like a butterfly) or gradually in small increments (like a tree)

Mechanisms of Change

The basic concept of child psychology that discusses the interaction of genes and the environment and what control one has over their cognitive and emotional experiences

Effortful Attention

The concept developed by Rothbart-Lee and colleagues that states we are able to control our thoughts and emotions, but it takes effort and that genes determine different levels of neurotransmitters in the brain associated with this ability

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals in the brain that send signals and have various affects on one’s mental state ex. dopamine, oxytocin

Sociocultural Context

The basic concept of child psychology that discusses the ways in which one’s identity, socioeconomic, and cultural factors affect their development

Cumulative Risk

The fact that accumulation of disadvantages over years creates a greater influence on one’s development

Individual Differences

The basic concept of child psychology that discusses how we interact with the environment varies and creates different likes/dislikes, personality traits, etc. (even among children raised in the same environment)

Research and Children’s Welfare

The basic concept of child psychology that has the goal of benefitting children via research into their characteristics and development. Applies to education, the legal system, psychopathology, etc.

The Scientific Method

An approach to testing beliefs via development of a hypothesis to be tested with an experiment

Reliability

The criteria for good research measures that involves the degree to which independent measures of a given behavior are consistent

Interrator Reliability

The agreement in observations by different researchers/raters

Test-Retest

The similarity in a participant’s performance across multiple trials

Validity

The criteria for good research measures that involves the degree to which a test measures what its intended to measure

Internal Validity

Degree to which effects that are observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor the researcher is testing

External Validity

Degree to which results can be generalized beyond the participants of the research

Replicability

Combining the properties of reliability and external validity to evaluate the degree to which the results of an experiment are found again in similar subsequent experiments

Structured Interview

Gathering information from children via asking a standardized set of questions. Useful when the goal is to collect self-reports on the same topics from everyone being studied

Clinical Interview

Gathering information from children via an in-depth and individualized conversation. Useful for obtaining information about a single child

Naturalistic Observation

Examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher. Particularly useful for understanding everyday social interactions

Structured Observation

Research method that presents identical situations to each child and record’s child behavior

Correlation

How often variables occur at the same time with no discernable relationship. Ranges from 1.00 (strongest positive correlation) to -1.00 (strongest negative correlation)

Causation

When one variable directly affects the other

Direction of Causation Problem

The issue that the correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable causes the other

Third Variable Problem

The issue that correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some other factor

Cross-Sectional Design

An experimental design that compares children of different ages on a given behavior over a short period of time. Does not demonstrate stability over time or changes shown by individual children

Longitudinal Design

An experimental design in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time. Useful for revealing stability and change over time.

Microgenetic Design

An experimental design when the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period. Designed to provide in-depth depiction of processes that produce change

WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized Rich, Democratic)

The acronym to describe the population on which most psychological research is conducted leaving a majority of the world understudied, particularly in a sociocultural context

Epigenesis

The emergence of new structures and functions over the course of development

Conception

The term for the start of pregnancy when sperm meets egg

Gamete

A sex cell, sperm for males and eggs for females

Meiosis

The form of cell division that produces gametes

Zygote

The term for an egg immediately after conception

Mitosis

The developmental process of cell division that results in two identical cells

Cell Migration

Newly formed cells moving away from their origin

Cell Differentiation

When cells start to specialize in structure and function

Embryotic Stem Cell

Cells in an embryo that can develop into any type of body cell

Apoptosis

Genetically programmed cell death. Necessary for development of certain structures and to avoid excessive growth

Androgens

Class or hormones that includes testosterone that leads to development of male genitalia

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

Overproduction of androgens causing both sets of genitalia to form

Glucocorticoid

A steroid that limits fetal growth and helps fetal tissue mature into organs

Inner Cell Mass

Day 4 after conception in which cells arrange themselves into a hollow sphere with a bulge of cells on one side

Monozygotic (Identical) Twins

The result of the zygote splitting in half and forming two individuals with identical genes

Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins

The result of two eggs being released into the fallopian tube at the same time and being fertilized by two different sperm resulting in two individuals that share half their genetic material

Neural Tube

Groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually become the brain and spinal cord

Amniotic Sac

A transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

Placenta

A support organ for the fetus that permits the exchange of materials carried in the bloodstream from mother to fetus

Umbilical Cord

The tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta

Phylogenetic Continuity

Humans sharing many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with nonhuman animals, especially mammals, due to our common evolutionary history

Habituation

Simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated exposure to continued stimulation. Seen at 30 weeks gestation in visual and auditory stimuli

Dishabituation

Introduction of a new stimulus that rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus

Sensitive Period

When a certain type of development is most likely and fetuses are most susceptible to damage from teratogens

Miscarriage

Unwanted premature death of a fetus that occurs in about 15% of clinically recognized pregnancies in the US

Teratogen

An external agent potentially harmful to a developing fetus ex. drugs, environmental pollutants, synthetic hormones

Sleeper Effect

When a fetus is exposed to a teratogen and there is no visual effect at first, but something emerges later ex. at puberty

Dose-Response Relation

The fact that the likelihood of a potential problem depends on how long and how much a parent is exposed, more exposure = more risk

Love Canal

The name of the hazardous waste site turned into a neighborhood in which birth defects occurred at a significantly higher rate than average due to the high level of teratogens in the water and soil

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS)

When babies go through withdrawal after birth because they no longer have a drug in their system that the parent was using during pregnancy

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder (FASD)

The condition resulting from alcohol use during pregnancy. Characterized by inhibited facial development, language skills, and gross motor skills

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Sudden, unexpected death of an infant younger than 1 year that has no identifiable cause. Subset of cases were caused by a rare genetic mutation that puts infants at risk of respiratory challenge

Nanoplastics

A newly identified potential teratogen consisting of microscopic pieces of plastic found in the environment and in organisms

Malnutrition

A major contributor to disadvantages in development resulting from not receiving enough of key nutrients

Fetal Programming

When an altered hormonal environment for the fetus may lead to long-term changes in how children and adults cope with stress via disrupted hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning

Amygdala

A part of the brain responsible for emotional responses i.e. fight or flight

Prefrontal Cortex

A part of the brain responsible for higher order thinking

States of Arousal

Six different conditions a newborn can exhibit (ex. crying, quiet sleep, alert awake). Often portrayed in a pie chart based on how long an infant spends in each condition

Rapid Eye Movement (REM)

Myoclonic twitching that occurs during deep sleep

Swaddling

Soothing technique used in many cultures that involves wrapping a baby snugly in cloths or a blanket

Colic

Excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason. Occurs in 1 in 10 US infants and typically ends around 3 months. No known long-term effects

Apgar Score

A quick health assessment immediately following birth in which a baby is pinched and then rated on skin tone change, pulse rate, facial response, arm and leg activity, and breathing strength

Low Birth Weight (LBW)

When an infant is born weighing less than 5.5 pounds, Associated with infant mortality.

Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW)

When an infant is born weighing less than 3.3 pounds. Highly associated with infant mortality.

Premature (preterm)

A baby born before 37 weeks gestation

Multiple-Risk Model

The model concerned with the effects of cumulative and multiple risks on normal functioning in child

Developmental Resilience

Successful development despite multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards

Structural Racism

Behaviors and beliefs that harm specific racial and ethnic groups. Can result in uneven access to healthcare and discrimination in healthcare settings ex. persistent anti-Black practices and outcomes

Genome

The complete set of an organisms’ genes

Gene Synthesis

The process of producing DNA

Genotype

The inherited genetic material for a specific trait

Phenotype

The observed expression of one’s inherited genetic material

Parent’s Genotype to Child’s Genotype

How the transmission of genetic material from a parent relates to the genetic material of their offspring passed down via reproduction

Chromosome

Molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information via meiosis

Deoxyriboneucleic Acid (DNA)

Molecules that carry all biochemical instructions for an organism’s structure and function

Gene

Sections of a chromosome that are the basic unit of heredity and code for a specific trait

Random Assortment

A mechanism of genetic diversity in which chromosomes are divided among the gametes at random

Crossing Over

A mechanism of genetic diversity in which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to another

Mutation

A randomly occurring change in a section of DNA that contributes to genetic diversity

Child’s Genotype to Child’s Phenotype

How the genetic material a child inherits relates to the physical expression and behavioral characteristics of that child

Endophenotype

An intermediate phenotype that does not involve overt behavior but mediates the pathway between genes and behavior ex. structure of the brain and nervous system

Regulator Gene

A gene that controls the activity of other genes by turning them ‘on’ and ‘off’

Dominance Pattern

The pattern of how/which of a gene is expressed

Allele

Different forms of a gene. Exist as dominant or recessive and homozygous or heterozygous

Polygenic Inheritance

An inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene

Child’s Environment to Child’s Phenotype

How the space a child grows up in and the experiences they have relates to the observed expression of their genotype

Child’s Phenotype to Child’s Environment

How the physical expression of a child’s genotype relates to the experiences they have via the child being an active creator of their experiences