GOV 310L Test 1 Review (Ch 1-3, 10-13)

Every term on ReviewSheet1: Understanding American Politics, Constitution, Federalism, Congress, Presidency, Bureaucracy, Courts.

American political values (liberty, democracy, equality)

Core shared ideals of the American creed: liberty (freedom from government interference), democracy (rule by the people), and equality (equal worth and rights). They often conflict, e.g., liberty vs. equality in tax policy.

Aristocracy

Government by a small privileged class, usually hereditary nobility or wealthy elites. The Founders rejected it; the Constitution bans titles of nobility (Article I).

Checks and balances

System in which each branch can limit the others, e.g., presidential veto, congressional override and Senate confirmation, judicial review. Prevents any one branch from accumulating too much power (Madison, Federalist 51).

Collective action problems

Situations where everyone would benefit from cooperating but each individual has an incentive not to contribute, so the shared goal goes unmet. Government solves them through coercion, e.g., taxes, laws, regulation.

Conservative

Ideology favoring limited government in the economy, free markets, low taxes, and traditional social values and order. In the U.S. mostly associated with the Republican Party; dominant in Texas.

Critical consumer of politics and news

Someone who evaluates political information skeptically, checking sources, evidence, bias, and motives rather than accepting claims at face value. Essential for democratic citizenship amid misinformation and partisan media.

Culture wars

Political conflicts over moral and social values rather than economics, e.g., abortion, LGBTQ rights, religion in public life, guns, race and school curriculum. Drive polarization between traditionalists and progressives.

Democracy

Government in which power rests with the people, who rule directly or through elected representatives. From Greek demos (people) + kratos (rule); legitimacy comes from consent of the governed.

Direct democracy

Citizens vote on laws and policies themselves rather than through representatives, e.g., ancient Athens, New England town meetings, state initiatives and referenda. The Founders distrusted it as prone to mob rule.

Economic individualism

Belief that individuals, not government, are responsible for their own economic well-being and should be free to pursue wealth with minimal interference. Supports free markets and low taxes; strong in Texas political culture.

Equality

Idea that all people have equal worth and should be treated equally. Key distinction: equality of opportunity (equal chance, favored in the U.S.) vs. equality of outcome (equal results); also political and legal equality.

Factions

Groups of citizens united by a common interest or passion adverse to the rights of others or the public good (Madison, Federalist 10). Their causes cannot be removed without destroying liberty, so their effects must be controlled.

Free market

Economic system where prices, production, and distribution are set by supply and demand among private actors with minimal government intervention. Linked to capitalism, economic individualism, and conservatism.

Free rider problem

Type of collective action problem in which people enjoy a public good without contributing to it, e.g., benefiting from national defense or public radio without paying. Leads to undersupply of public goods.

Government (definition, types, functions, sources of conflict)

The institutions with authority to make and enforce binding rules; types differ by who rules (monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, theocracy). Provides order, defense, public goods, rights; conflict arises over scarce resources and competing values.

Ideology

A coherent, consistent set of beliefs about the proper role and scope of government and how society should be organized, e.g., liberalism, conservatism, libertarianism. Shapes policy preferences and party identification.

Indirect democracy

Citizens elect representatives who make laws on their behalf; also called representative democracy or a republic. The U.S. model, favored by the Founders to filter popular passions.

Liberal

Modern U.S. ideology favoring an active government role in the economy to reduce inequality (social programs, regulation) and personal freedom on social issues. Mostly associated with the Democratic Party.

Liberty

Freedom from government interference in one's life and choices, e.g., speech, religion, property. Central value in the Declaration of Independence (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness); can conflict with equality and order.

Libertarians

Those who want minimal government in both economic and social life: free markets and low taxes plus broad personal freedoms like drug legalization. Combine conservative economics with liberal social views.

Monarchy

Government in which one person, usually a hereditary king or queen, holds power. Colonists rebelled against King George III, shaping the Founders' fear of concentrated executive power.

Norms

Unwritten rules and expectations of behavior that guide political actors though not legally required, e.g., peaceful transfer of power, conceding elections. Part of the informal constitution; their erosion threatens democracy.

Politics

The process of deciding who gets what, when, and how (Harold Lasswell); the conflict and cooperation over distributing power, resources, and values in a society.

Polity

An organized political community or society with a form of government, e.g., the United States or Texas as a body of citizens. Also Aristotle's term for a mixed government blending democracy and oligarchy.

Public goods

Goods that are non-excludable and non-rival, so anyone can use them without reducing others' use, e.g., national defense, clean air, street lights. Markets undersupply them due to free riders, so government provides them.

Redistributive tax policies

Policies that tax higher earners at higher rates to fund benefits for lower-income people, shifting wealth, e.g., progressive income tax, welfare, Medicaid. Pits equality of outcome against liberty and economic individualism.

Republic

Government in which power rests with the people but is exercised by elected representatives under the rule of law, with no monarch. The Founders created a republic rather than a direct democracy.

Separation of powers

Dividing government into three branches, legislative (makes laws), executive (enforces laws), judicial (interprets laws), each with distinct powers. Based on Montesquieu; prevents tyranny by keeping power from concentrating.

Texas Creed

The shared political values Texans hold: individualism, liberty, limited government, low taxes, free enterprise, private property, and equality of opportunity. Rooted in frontier self-reliance; explains Texas' low-tax, low-service, pro-business politics.

Tragedy of the commons

Individuals acting in self-interest overuse and deplete a shared resource, harming everyone, e.g., overfishing, overgrazing, groundwater depletion. A collective action problem requiring regulation (Garrett Hardin, 1968).

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. constitution (drafted 1777, ratified 1781): weak league of sovereign states with a unicameral Congress, one vote per state, no executive or courts, no power to tax or regulate commerce; amendments needed unanimity.

Bicameralism

A legislature with two chambers, e.g., U.S. House (based on population) and Senate (equal per state), from the Great Compromise. Slows lawmaking and adds an internal check; the Texas Legislature is also bicameral.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments, ratified 1791, protecting individual liberties from the national government, e.g., speech, religion, arms, due process. Drafted by Madison and added to win over Anti-Federalists.

Common Sense (Thomas Paine)

January 1776 pamphlet arguing in plain language for independence from Britain and against monarchy and hereditary rule. A bestseller that turned colonial public opinion toward revolution.

Constitution (key aspects)

Written 1787, ratified 1788; creates a republic with separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism, and limited government. Articles: I Congress, II President, III courts, IV states, V amendments, VI supremacy, VII ratification.

Constitutional amendments and the amendment process

Article V: proposed by 2/3 of both houses of Congress (or a convention called by 2/3 of states), ratified by 3/4 of states (38). Deliberately difficult; only 27 amendments.

Constitutional Convention

Meeting in Philadelphia, May to September 1787, called to revise the Articles but instead wrote a new Constitution. 55 delegates met in secret; Washington presided and Madison was the chief architect.

Declaration of Independence

Adopted July 4, 1776, written mainly by Thomas Jefferson; drew on Locke to assert natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness), government by consent, and the right to overthrow tyranny; listed grievances against George III.

Elastic clause

Nickname for the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8), letting Congress stretch its powers to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. Basis of implied powers (McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819).

Electoral College

System for electing the president: each state gets electors equal to its House plus Senate seats (538 total, 270 to win); most states are winner-take-all. A Founders' compromise; can elect a popular-vote loser (2000, 2016).

Enumerated powers

Powers specifically listed for Congress in the Constitution, mainly Article I, Section 8, e.g., tax, borrow, regulate interstate commerce, coin money, declare war, raise armies. Also called expressed powers.

Federalism

Division of power between a national government and state governments, each with its own authority over the same people. A middle path between the weak Articles and a unitary system; 10th Amendment reserves powers to states.

Federalist 10

Madison's essay arguing that a large republic controls the effects of factions: many competing interests make it hard for any one majority faction to dominate, and representation filters popular passions.

Federalist Papers

85 essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (as Publius), 1787 to 1788, urging New York to ratify the Constitution. Key ones: No. 10 (factions), 51 (checks and balances), 78 (judiciary).

Federalists and Anti-Federalists

Federalists (Hamilton, Madison) backed ratification and a stronger national government. Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry, George Mason) feared tyranny, distant central power, and no bill of rights; their pressure produced the Bill of Rights.

Formal and informal constitution

Formal constitution is the written document and its amendments; informal constitution is unwritten practices, norms, traditions, and court interpretations that shape government, e.g., political parties, the cabinet, judicial review.

Full faith and credit clause

Article IV requirement that states honor the public acts, records, and court judgments of other states, e.g., marriages, divorces, contracts, driver's licenses. Promotes national unity under federalism.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

1787 deal led by Roger Sherman blending the Virginia and New Jersey Plans: bicameral Congress with House seats by population and equal Senate representation (two per state). Revenue bills originate in the House.

Impeachment

House impeaches (formally charges) by simple majority for treason, bribery, or high crimes and misdemeanors; Senate holds the trial, 2/3 vote to convict and remove. Impeached presidents: A. Johnson, Clinton, Trump twice; none removed.

Implied powers

Powers not specifically listed but inferred from enumerated powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause, e.g., creating a national bank (McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819). Greatly expanded national power.

Legislative vs. executive power

Legislative power (Article I, Congress) makes laws, taxes, spends, and declares war; executive power (Article II, president) enforces laws, commands the military, conducts foreign policy. Founders feared executive tyranny, so Congress comes first.

Limited government

Principle that government power is restricted by a constitution and law to protect individual rights, e.g., enumerated powers, Bill of Rights, separation of powers. Rooted in Locke; central to the Texas Creed.

Major ideas debated over the Constitution

Key debates: strong national government vs. states' rights; large vs. small state representation; slavery and counting enslaved people; how strong the executive should be; need for a bill of rights; whether a large republic could work.

Majority vs. minority rights

Tension between majority rule (democracy) and protecting minorities from tyranny of the majority. The Constitution limits majorities through the Bill of Rights, Senate, courts, and federalism (Madison, Federalist 10 and 51).

National supremacy clause (Supremacy Clause)

Article VI: the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land, and conflicting state laws are invalid. Ensures the national government prevails in conflicts (McCulloch v. Maryland).

Natural rights

Rights people hold by nature, not granted by government, which government cannot legitimately take away: Locke's life, liberty, and property; Jefferson's life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. Basis of the Declaration.

Necessary and proper clause

Article I, Section 8, Clause 18: Congress may make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers. Also called the elastic clause; source of implied powers (McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819).

New Jersey Plan

Small-state proposal by William Paterson, 1787: unicameral legislature with equal representation per state, keeping the Articles' structure but adding taxing and commerce powers. Countered the Virginia Plan.

Parliamentary system

System in which the executive (prime minister and cabinet) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, with no strict separation of powers, e.g., the United Kingdom. Contrasts with the U.S. presidential system.

Pluralism

Theory that political power is spread among many competing interest groups and that policy results from bargaining among them. Echoes Madison's Federalist 10 idea that many factions check each other.

Popular sovereignty

Principle that ultimate political authority rests with the people, who consent to be governed, e.g., We the People in the Preamble. The basis of democratic legitimacy.

Power of the purse

Congress's constitutional authority to tax and spend (appropriate money), a major check on the executive. Revenue bills must originate in the House (Article I, Section 7).

Proprietary colony

Colony granted by the British Crown to an individual or group (proprietor) who owned the land and governed it, e.g., Pennsylvania (William Penn), Maryland. Contrasts with royal and charter colonies.

Ratification of the Constitution

Article VII required approval by 9 of 13 state conventions; New Hampshire was 9th in June 1788, Rhode Island last in 1790. A fierce Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist fight; the promise of a bill of rights won key states.

Republican democracy

Form of government combining democracy (power from the people) and republicanism (elected representatives, rule of law, protection of rights). The U.S. system: popular rule filtered through representatives and institutions.

Republicanism

Political philosophy favoring government by elected representatives, rule of law, civic virtue, and the public good, opposed to monarchy and aristocracy. Not the same as the Republican Party.

Reserved powers

Powers neither delegated to the national government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or the people (10th Amendment), e.g., education, policing, running elections, marriage, intrastate commerce.

Second Treatise of Government (John Locke)

1689 work arguing people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, form government by social contract to protect them, and may overthrow a government that violates them. Inspired the Declaration.

Shays' Rebellion

1786 to 1787 armed uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays against foreclosures and taxes. Exposed the Articles' weakness (no national army) and spurred the Constitutional Convention.

Social contract

Theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) that people agree to give up some freedom and form a government in exchange for protection of their rights and order; government's legitimacy rests on consent of the governed.

Theocracy

Government ruled by religious leaders or based on religious law, e.g., Iran, Vatican City. The U.S. rejects it via the First Amendment Establishment Clause and the ban on religious tests for office (Article VI).

Three-Fifths Compromise

1787 agreement counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for apportioning House seats and direct taxes. Boosted Southern power in Congress and the Electoral College; ended by the 14th Amendment.

Virginia Plan

Large-state plan by James Madison, presented by Edmund Randolph, 1787: strong national government with three branches and a bicameral legislature based on population. Became the framework of the Constitution.

10th Amendment

Reserves to the states or the people all powers not delegated to the national government nor prohibited to the states. Basis of reserved powers and states' rights arguments.

14th Amendment

Ratified 1868; guarantees citizenship, due process, and equal protection against state action. Used to incorporate the Bill of Rights against the states and expand national power over states.

Block grants

Federal grants for broad policy areas (e.g., community development, welfare/TANF) with few strings attached, giving states flexibility in spending. Favored by new federalism and Republicans.

Categorical grants

Federal grants for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict conditions on how money is spent (e.g., Medicaid, highway funds). Most common grant type; increases federal control over states.

Coercive federalism

Era (roughly 1970s to present) in which the national government directs state policy through unfunded mandates, preemption, and grant conditions. Example: drinking age tied to highway funds (South Dakota v. Dole, 1987).

Commerce clause

Article I, Section 8 power for Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce. Read broadly after 1937 to expand federal power (Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824); limited in U.S. v. Lopez (1995).

Competitive federalism

View that states compete for residents and businesses by offering different mixes of taxes, services, and regulations, so citizens vote with their feet. Encourages innovation but risks a race to the bottom.

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by the national and state governments, such as taxing, borrowing, establishing courts, and making and enforcing laws.

Confederal government

System in which sovereign states hold primary power and the central government has only the powers states grant it. Example: the Articles of Confederation, which proved too weak.

Cons of federalism

Creates inequality across states in rights, services, and taxes; causes duplication, confusion, and slow responses; allows spillovers and a race to the bottom; historically shielded slavery and segregation under states' rights.

Cooperative federalism

Era (roughly 1930s to 1960s) when national and state governments shared responsibilities with blurred boundaries, funded by federal grants. Began with the New Deal; called marble cake federalism.

Denied powers

Powers the Constitution forbids to the national government, the states, or both (Art. I, Sec. 9 and 10). Examples: no ex post facto laws or bills of attainder; states cannot coin money or make treaties.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1857 case holding Black Americans were not citizens and Congress could not ban slavery in the territories, voiding the Missouri Compromise. Fueled the Civil War; overturned by the 13th and 14th Amendments.

Dual federalism

Era (roughly 1789 to 1937) when national and state governments had separate, distinct spheres of authority with little overlap; called layer cake federalism. Courts read national power narrowly.

Evolution of federalism

Dual (1789 to 1930s, layer cake) to cooperative (1930s to 1960s, New Deal, marble cake) to new federalism (1970s to 1990s, Nixon and Reagan devolution) to coercive (1970s to present, mandates and preemption). Trend: growing national power.

Ex post facto laws

Laws that criminalize an act after it was committed or retroactively increase its punishment. Prohibited to both Congress and the states by Article I.

Exclusive powers

Powers held only by the national government, such as coining money, declaring war, making treaties, and regulating interstate and foreign commerce. States cannot exercise them.

Federal preemption

Principle, based on the supremacy clause, that federal law overrides conflicting state law in an area Congress has chosen to regulate. A key tool of coercive federalism.

Fiscal federalism

The national government's use of grants-in-aid and spending to influence state and local policy. Money with strings attached lets Washington shape policy in areas it cannot directly regulate.

Formula grants

Categorical grants distributed by a set formula based on factors like population, income, or need (e.g., Medicaid). Contrast with project grants awarded competitively by application.

Good things about federalism

Keeps government closer to the people, lets states act as laboratories of democracy, accommodates regional diversity, creates multiple access points for participation, and checks national power to protect liberty.

Intergovernmental organizations

Groups representing state and local governments that lobby the national government, such as the National Governors Association, National Conference of State Legislatures, and U.S. Conference of Mayors.

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 Marshall Court case holding Congress could create a national bank under the necessary and proper clause (implied powers) and states cannot tax the federal government (supremacy). Expanded national power.

New federalism

1970s to 1990s movement (Nixon, Reagan) to devolve power and responsibility back to the states through block grants and revenue sharing. Reflected distrust of big national government.

Nullification

Doctrine that states can declare federal laws unconstitutional and void within their borders. Pushed by John C. Calhoun in the 1832 tariff crisis; rejected by the courts and settled by the Civil War.

Picket fence federalism

Model where each policy area is a vertical picket linking national, state, and local officials who specialize in the same program, crossing the horizontal rails of government levels. Coordination runs by policy area.

Police power

States' reserved power to regulate the health, safety, welfare, and morals of their citizens. Basis for state laws on crime, education, marriage, and public health.