Human Development & Learning — Chapters 6, 7 & 9 Study Guide

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering culture, diversity, equity, behavioral learning views, operant conditioning, and complex cognitive processes from Chapters 6, 7, and 9.

Culture

The norms, values, practices, patterns of communication, language, laws, customs, and meanings shared by a group of people in a particular time and place.

Socialization

The systematic training into the norms of our culture; learning the meanings and practices that help individuals understand and behave appropriately within a culture.

Race

A socially constructed category based on physical characteristics that society considers important, such as skin color and hair texture.

Ethnicity

A group's shared cultural characteristics, such as history, homeland, language, traditions, and religion.

Intersectionality

The principle that individuals have multiple, overlapping social identities (such as race, ethnicity, gender, social class, and language) that shape them in unique ways.

Model Minority Stereotype

A seemingly positive label applied to Asian Americans that is harmful because it reinforces conformity, stifles assertiveness, and portrays group members as foreigners.

Social Class

Levels of standing in society from low to high based on perceptions of wealth, power, and prestige.

Classism

The belief that some social classes or groups are better than others.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A person's relative standing in society based on income, power, background, and prestige, typically categorized into four levels: upper, middle, working, and lower.

Resistance Culture

A culture where some students resist academic school achievement and reject behaving in ways associated with the middle class.

Minority / Minoritized Group

A group that has experienced social disadvantage or discrimination, which does not necessarily refer to a numerically smaller population.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

The landmark Supreme Court ruling that declared 'separate but equal' schools to be inherently unequal, making school segregation illegal and mandating integration.

Prejudice

A learned pre-judgment or negative attitude toward others originating from internalized thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and assumptions about groups.

Discrimination

The act of behaving or taking action based on prejudice, such as through ignoring, avoiding, excluding, ridicule, slander, threats, or violence.

Stereotype Threat

The fear that one's performance will confirm a negative stereotype about one's group, which can impair attention, working memory, and learning.

Oppression

Holding down, pressing, or denying a social group full access and potential in society, occurring when one group enforces prejudice and discrimination by controlling institutions.

Social Stratification

The societal process of adding unequal value to different groups.

Gender vs. Sex

Gender refers to socially expected traits and behaviors considered appropriate for males and females, whereas sex refers to biological differences.

Gender Identity

A person's internal sense of self regarding gender and beliefs about gender roles and attributes, which is not necessarily the same as the sex assigned at birth.

Gender Roles

Behaviors associated with societal gender expectations; how people behave in gender-conforming ways.

Sexual Orientation

The gender or genders to whom a person is emotionally or sexually attracted.

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that gender serves as an organizing theme used to classify and understand the world, influenced by biology, adults, peers, toys, play, and socialization.

Microaggression

A brief, commonplace verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignity—whether intentional or unintentional—that communicates hostile, derogatory, or negative prejudicial messages toward a group.

Multicultural Education

An educational approach aimed at promoting equity in education for all students across ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender differences.

Five Dimensions of Multicultural Education (Banks)

A framework comprising: 1. Content integration, 2. Knowledge construction process, 3. Prejudice reduction, 4. Empowering school culture/social structure, and 5. Equity pedagogy.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

A pedagogical framework built on three propositions: students must experience academic success, develop and maintain cultural competence, and develop critical consciousness to challenge the status quo.

Delpit's Three Steps

Guidelines for culturally responsive teaching: 1. Believe in children, 2. Provide rigorous instruction connected to students' lives and culture, and 3. Know your students and help them value excellence.

Learning

A permanent or lasting change in behavior, knowledge, or potential for behavior that is caused by experience, rather than by maturation or temporary conditions.

Cognitive vs. Behavioral Theorists

Cognitive theorists focus on internal changes in knowledge, whereas behavioral theorists focus on observable changes in behavior.

Aristotle's Laws of Association

Principles stating that memory associations form when things are experienced together because they are similar, contrasting, or continuous/connected.

Stimulus and Response

A stimulus is an event that activates behavior, and a response is an observable reaction to that stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

A form of learning that focuses on involuntary emotional or physiological responses (such as fear, salivation, or sweating) becoming associated with new stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unconditioned stimulus automatically produces an emotional or physiological reaction, while an unconditioned response is the natural, unlearned response to that stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Conditioned Response (CR)

A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a reaction after conditioning, while a conditioned response is the learned automatic response to that stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning developed by B. F. Skinner in which voluntary, goal-directed behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents.

Operants

Voluntary, generally goal-directed behaviors that operate on the environment.

ABC Model

A three-part behavioral analysis framework consisting of Antecedent (event before behavior), Behavior, and Consequence (event following behavior).

Positive Reinforcement

The process of increasing a behavior by presenting or adding a desirable stimulus following that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

The process of increasing a behavior by removing or terminating an unpleasant stimulus following that behavior.

Positive Punishment

The process of decreasing a behavior by presenting or adding an unpleasant stimulus following that behavior.

Negative Punishment

The process of decreasing a behavior by removing or taking away a desirable stimulus following that behavior.

Continuous vs. Intermittent Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement rewards every single correct response, whereas intermittent reinforcement rewards only some responses (based on a ratio of responses or an interval of time).

Extinction (Behavioral)

The gradual decrease and cessation of a learned behavior when reinforcement is discontinued.

Cue vs. Prompt

A cue is an initial signal indicating that a behavior should occur, whereas a prompt is an additional reminder provided after the cue to help perform the behavior.

Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)

A systematic assessment process designed to determine why a specific problem behavior happens and what purpose it serves.

Positive Behavioral Support (PBS)

An intervention approach that replaces problem behavior with an appropriate alternative behavior that serves the same purpose.

Precorrection

A proactive classroom management strategy that prevents misbehavior by anticipating difficulties and teaching or rehearsing expected behaviors ahead of time.

Self-Management

A behavioral approach in which students set their own goals, monitor their own progress, and provide their own reinforcement.

Metacognition

Knowledge about one's own thinking processes; thinking about, monitoring, and regulating one's own cognitive processes.

Three Types of Metacognitive Knowledge

1. Declarative knowledge (knowing what), 2. Procedural knowledge (knowing how), and 3. Self-regulatory knowledge (knowing when and why to apply strategies).

Three Metacognitive Skills

The sequential executive regulation skills of Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluating.

Retrieval Practice

The active learning strategy of deliberately recalling and pulling information from memory instead of simply rereading notes or texts.

READS

A 5-step reading strategy: Review, Examine, Ask, Do it — read, and Summarize.

PQ4R

A 6-step reading comprehension system: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review.

CAPS

A reading comprehension strategy focusing on four key story elements: Characters, Aim, Problem, and Solution.

KWL

An instructional reading strategy organized around three guiding questions: What do I Know? What do I Want to know? What have I Learned?

Algorithm vs. Heuristic

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure guaranteed to find a solution, whereas a heuristic is a general problem-solving rule of thumb or strategy.

Means-End Analysis

A problem-solving heuristic in which the main problem is broken down into smaller intermediate subgoals.

Working Backward

A problem-solving strategy that begins with the final goal and traces the steps backward to the initial state.

Analogical Thinking

A problem-solving heuristic that uses the solution to an analogous, similar problem as a guide to solve a new problem.

Functional Fixedness

The cognitive obstacle of seeing an object only in terms of its typical, conventional use, hindering creative problem solving.

Response Set

The tendency to become stuck in one approach or way of representing and solving a problem.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out, notice, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to an initial belief even when confronted with contradictory evidence.

Availability Heuristic vs. Representativeness Heuristic

The availability heuristic bases judgments on how easily instances come to mind, whereas the representativeness heuristic bases judgments on how closely something matches a prototype.

Overconfidence

The cognitive tendency to hold greater certainty in one's judgments, knowledge, or answers than the objective evidence supports.

Transfer

The application of previously acquired knowledge or skills to a new situation, progressing through three stages: acquisition, retention, and transfer.

Robust Knowledge

Knowledge that is deep (understanding underlying principles), connected (linking concepts together), and coherent (understanding how information fits into a whole).

Disputative vs. Deliberative Discussion

Disputative discussion centers on 'Who is right?', whereas deliberative discussion centers on 'Which idea is right?'.

Prejudice

Learned pre judgement toward others

Discrimination

Acting on prejudice