Articulatory Program: Theoretical and Practical Units Review

Comprehensive practice flashcards created from the theoretical and practical study notes for Veterinary Medicine and Food Technology.

What are the primary structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, as illustrated in the cell comparison diagram?

Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus (having their genetic material located in a nucleoid region) and membranous organelles, forming unicellular organisms. Eukaryotic cells (animal and plant) contain a true nucleus and membranous organelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.), and can form either unicellular or multicellular organisms.

What are the seven fundamental characteristics shared by all living organisms?

1. Complex and hierarchical organization
2. Metabolism
3. Homeostasis
4. Reproduction
5. Growth and development
6. Irritability (response to stimuli)
7. Adaptation and evolution

How are the two main metabolic processes, anabolism and catabolism, defined?

Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones and requires energy input. Catabolism is the degradation of complex molecules into simpler ones and releases energy.

What is homeostasis, and why is it essential for living organisms?

Homeostasis is the ability of living organisms to maintain a relatively stable internal environment (such as body temperature, pH, glucose levels, and water balance) despite external environmental fluctuations.

Based on the simplified atomic model, what are the three main subatomic particles, their locations, and their electric charges?

Protons ($p^+$) are located in the nucleus with a positive electric charge; neutrons ($n^0$) are in the nucleus with no electric charge; and electrons ($e^-$) orbit around the nucleus in energy levels with a negative electric charge.

What do the atomic number ($Z$) and mass number ($A$) represent in an atom?

The atomic number ($Z$) indicates the number of protons in the nucleus and defines the chemical element. The mass number ($A$) indicates the total count of protons and neutrons.

What are the atomic numbers ($Z$) of the six primary elements predominant in living organisms: carbon ($C$), hydrogen ($H$), oxygen ($O$), nitrogen ($N$), phosphorus ($P$), and sulfur ($S$)?

Carbon ($Z = 6$), hydrogen ($Z = 1$), oxygen ($Z = 8$), nitrogen ($Z = 7$), phosphorus ($Z = 15$), and sulfur ($Z = 16$).

What is the key difference between a covalent bond and an ionic bond?

A covalent bond occurs when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons (typical between atoms of similar electronegativity). An ionic bond involves the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating cations and anions held together by electrostatic attraction.

How are inorganic compounds classified quantitatively based on the number of elements in their chemical formula?

They are classified as binary (containing $2$ different elements, e.g., $H_2O$, $NaCl$), ternary (containing $3$ different elements, e.g., $NaOH$, $H_2SO_4$), or quaternary (containing $4$ different elements, e.g., $NaHCO_3$).

How are inorganic compounds classified structurally and functionally?

They are classified into Oxides (combination of oxygen with another element), Acids (release $H^+$ ions in aqueous solution), Hydroxides or bases (contain the hydroxyl group $OH^-$), and Salts (produced by the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base).

In the chemical reaction shown in this diagram, what substances react to form aluminum chloride?

One mole of aluminum hydroxide ($Al(OH)_3$) reacts with three moles of hydrochloric acid ($3\,HCl$) to produce one mole of aluminum chloride ($AlCl_3$) and three moles of water ($3\,H_2O$).

What naming rule for oxosales applies when aluminum hydroxide reacts with nitric acid?

The acid suffix "-ico" changes to "-ato" in the resulting ternary salt. Thus, nitric acid ($HNO_3$) reacting with aluminum hydroxide ($Al(OH)_3$) forms aluminum nitrate ($Al(NO_3)_3$) and water ($3\,H_2O$).

What naming rule for oxosales applies when cupric hydroxide reacts with nitrous acid?

The acid suffix "-oso" changes to "-ito" in the resulting ternary salt. Thus, nitrous acid ($2\,HNO_2$) reacting with cupric hydroxide ($Cu(OH)_2$) forms cupric nitrite ($Cu(NO_2)_2$) and water ($2\,H_2O$).

According to the inorganic compound formation flowchart, how are oxygenated salts (sal oxigenada) and hydracid salts (sal) produced?

Oxygenated salts (sal oxigenada) are formed by reacting a hydroxide with an oxoacid. Hydracid salts (sal) are formed by reacting a hydroxide with a hydracid (non-metallic hydride in aqueous solution).

What is the structural relationship between monomers and polymers illustrated in the diagram?

Monomers are small basic repeating unit molecules that link together via covalent bonds to form a larger macromolecule called a polymer.

What are the four major classes of organic biomolecules and their basic constituent units?

1. Carbohydrates (monosaccharides and polysaccharides)
2. Lipids (built from glycerol and fatty acids; not organized into true polymers)
3. Proteins (polymers of amino acids)
4. Nucleic acids (polymers of nucleotides, e.g., DNA, RNA, ATP)

What is Avogadro's number ($N_A$) and how is a mol defined?

A mol is defined as the amount of substance containing exactly $6.022 \times 10^{23}$ particles (atoms, molecules, ions). This quantity is known as Avogadro's number ($N_A$).

How are ratio ($r$) and proportion expressed mathematically?

A ratio represents a comparison between two magnitudes: $r = \frac{A}{B}$. A proportion is an equation stating that two ratios are equal: \frac{A}{B} = \frac{C}{D}.

What are the seven base magnitudes, units, and symbols in the International System of Units (SI)?

1. Length: meter ($m$)
2. Mass: kilogram ($kg$)
3. Time: second ($s$)
4. Thermodynamic temperature: kelvin ($K$)
5. Amount of substance: mol ($mol$)
6. Electric current: ampere ($A$)
7. Luminous intensity: candela ($cd$)

What are the scientific notation multipliers for the SI prefixes milli, micro, nano, and pico?

milli ($m$) = $10^{-3}$ micro ($\mu$) = $10^{-6}$ nano ($\eta$ or $n$) = $10^{-9}$ pico ($p$) = $10^{-12}$

What is the physical unit system equivalence between capacity and volume for liters and milliliters?

$1\,l = 1\,dm^3$ and $1\,ml = 1\,cm^3$.

How do the CGS, MKS, and Technical systems compare in units of length, mass, and force?

CGS: Length in $cm$, Mass in $g$, Force in Dina. MKS (SI): Length in $m$, Mass in $kg$, Force in Newton ($N = kg \cdot m/s^2$). Technical: Length in $m$, Mass in $UTM$ ($1\,UTM = 9.8\,kg$), Force in Kilogram-force ($kgf$).

What is the physical difference between mass ($m$) and weight ($P$)?

Mass ($m$) is a scalar quantity indicating the amount of matter in a body and measuring its inertia (constant anywhere, measured in $kg$). Weight ($P = m \cdot g$) is a vector force of gravitational attraction acting on that mass (varies with local gravity, measured in Newtons, $N$).

What is the weight in Newtons of a $20\,kg$ dog on Earth ($g = 9.8\,m/s^2$) compared to on the Moon ($g = 1.67\,m/s^2$)?

On Earth: $P = 20\,kg \times 9.8\,m/s^2 = 196\,N$. On the Moon: $P = 20\,kg \times 1.67\,m/s^2 = 33.4\,N$.

How is temperature difference ($\Delta T$) isolated from Fourier's Law of heat transfer ($Q = \frac{k \cdot A \cdot \Delta T}{e} \cdot t$)?

Rearranging Fourier's Law to solve for $\Delta T$ gives: $\Delta T = \frac{Q \cdot e}{t \cdot k \cdot A}$

What is the complete expression for Bernoulli's equation used in fluid dynamics?

$$P_1 + \frac{1}{2} \cdot \delta \cdot v_1^2 + \delta \cdot g \cdot h_1 = P_2 + \frac{1}{2} \cdot \delta \cdot v_2^2 + \delta \cdot g \cdot h_2$$

What are the formulas for Kinetic Energy ($E_c$) and Gravitational Potential Energy ($E_{pg}$)?

Kinetic Energy: $E_c = \frac{1}{2} \cdot m \cdot v^2$ (units: Joules, $1\,J = 1\,N \cdot m = 1\,kg \cdot m^2/s^2$). Gravitational Potential Energy: $E_{pg} = m \cdot g \cdot h$.

What form of biological energy is recorded using an electrocardiogram (ECG)?

An ECG records electrical energy, specifically the electrical impulses generated by cardiac cells that initiate heart contractions.

How fast do electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum, and how are they ordered across the electromagnetic spectrum?

All electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum at the speed of light ($3 \times 10^8\,m/s$). They are ordered by frequency and wavelength, ranging from radio waves (lowest frequency, longest wavelength) to gamma rays (highest frequency, shortest wavelength).

How does energy flow through an ecosystem compared to how nutrients cycle?

Energy flows unidirectionally through an ecosystem (entering as solar energy, passing through trophic levels with roughly $10\%$ efficiency, and losing energy as heat). Nutrients (such as carbon and water) cycle continuously between living organisms and abiotic reservoirs.