Political Science 160 Midterm

Introduction to Political Theory - Key Terms

Telos

The end goal/purpose of something. What is the telos (purpose) of government?

Political Theory

Seeks to understand what the best form of regime is, and how one could get there. This also includes determining whether or not a law is good and the inherent nature of factors in government (humans, laws, rights, equality, etc). When studying this, we must understand the impacts of our own biases, as shaped by our identities and environments.

Cave Allegory

 Philosopher Plato uses this to illustrate how our environments shape what we believe to be true, and our lack of questioning it when it's all we know. How can we escape it?

Empirical Disagreements

 Agreeing on principles, but disagreeing on how the world will handle them.

Normative Disagreements

Conflicts on what principle to apply, and when.

Basic Goods

The things that governments should seek for their citizens. They are prioritized differently, and different conceptions are held about them. These are the topic of a great deal of debate in political theory. 

Intrinsic Goods

The basic goods that are fundamental values, like well-being and freedom. They alone have value. Debates can exist over what qualifies as one or not.

Instrumental Goods

The goods that help achieve intrinsic goods, but do not hold value alone. Debates can exist over what qualifies as one or not.

Security

A basic good prioritizing the protection of life. This features debates regarding human nature and the state of nature, and the scarce resources argument.

Freedom

A basic good prioritizing individual liberties. It is defined by one's relationships with others, in the sense that no one inhibits their ability to do what they like.

Negative Freedom/Liberty

There are no external constraints on liberties. Any interference would make us unfree from this perspective. The less intervention (from the government), the better. 

Positive Freedom/Liberty

Believes that everyone must be allotted the resources to truly be free. Freedom should come from one’s independence to control their own lives, and lack of dependence on factors they cannot control (such as deep poverty or discrimination). People with this perspective would likely advocate for strong social welfare.

Development

A basic good that can prioritize both the acquisition of reason and knowledge, as well as the growth and power of a regime. This good can be missing despite a free and secure society. Debates surround whether or not the government should promote it.

Excellence

A basic good prioritizing high achievement and virtue. Debates argue whether or not the government should foster this, and if so, to what extent.

Well-being

The basic good that is said to create a complete and good life. There are many different conceptions of this: Hedonistic (maximize pleasure, minimize pain), Practical (virtue and excellence, doing good for humanity), Contemplative (Wisdom and answering life's questions), Pious (Devotion to divine beings), and Self-Realization (Creative expression of one’s self).

Atomism

As society progresses, old forms of community will unravel, creating inevitable loneliness. This is used to argue for the government helping to foster well-being through the cultivation of community.

Materialism

Capitalism based short term pleasures, though well-being is not necessarily ensured in the long-term. Many people who believe in government efforts to foster well-being argue that the government should encourage this, honoring it as a form of community and artistic expression.

Justice

A basic good defined by individuals getting “what they deserve”, and is the good that distributes the other goods.

Corrective Justice

Looks to compensate those whose rights have been affected by another’s wrongdoing. Debates often surround how this should be implemented, either through lex talionis/retribution (doing upon others what they do to you), or through rehabilitation (encouraging reconciliation and attempting to restore lawbreakers to society). This principle is often violated in cases such as wrongful convictions or when protecting the rich. 

Distributive Justice

Determines how communal resources are divided within a society. Fierce debates surround how these resources should be allocated.

Justice as Merit

A theory of distributive justice, arguing that resources should be divided based on who contributes the most to society.

Justice as Equality

A theory of distributive justice, arguing that resources should be divided equally among society members, emphasizing the belief that humans are capable of becoming equal, and all inequalities are inherently unjust. Marxism encompasses this.

Justice as Fair Opportunity

A theory of distributive justice, arguing that resources should be redistributed to give everyone equal opportunity to effectively use their freedom. This emphasizes the belief that people should take responsibility for their actions, however people cannot be held accountable when they do not have equal opportunities.

State of Nature

Asks the question of “What would the world look like without government?”. There is vast debate regarding the answer to this question, with notable ideas coming from Thomas Hobbes, who believed that everyone would be at constant war with each other, while John Locke believed there would be a state of peace.

Law of Nature

The universal moral codes described by various philosophers, notably John Locke, who used to to argue his beliefs on the state of nature.

Human Nature

The general inclinations and behaviors that characterize human interactions. This seeks to identify universal human traits, if there are any. The theories of this are the hidden bases for larger debates in political theory. There is a very large variety of ideas of human nature.

Social Constructionism

 The idea that there is no human nature. Our behaviors are the result of our socialization and environments. This is a key point in the Nurture versus Nature debate.

Nurture vs. Nature

The debate on human nature, seeking to identify if our nature is shaped through our biology or environment in which we are raised. Most agree it is a combination of both, however debates still surround which dominates.

Moralism vs. Realism

This debate surrounds what the government's role should be in improving human nature (if possible). The former argues that the government should actively work towards improving human nature, emphasizing the importance of the goods of justice and happiness and believing in the idea that humans can be shaped by government. The latter argues that the government should minimally influence human nature, simply keeping us from harming each other, emphasizing the importance of the good of security and the belief that humans cannot truly be influenced by the government.

Selfish vs. Social

This debate surrounds whether humans are inherently looking out for only themselves, or if they also have an inherent care for others, influencing humans motivations.

Reason vs. Emotion

This debate surrounds what causes the actions of humans. There are three main theories on how humans decide what to do. 

Instrumental Reasoning

The theory that emotions give humans their goals, however humans can use their reasoning to determine the best means in which to achieve their goals.

Humanistic Reasoning

Humans’ reasoning allows them to see beyond their self-serving needs.

Motivated Reasoning

Humans’ reasoning is distorted by their emotion, appetites, and attachments.

Revolutionary vs. Evolutionary Change

A debate influenced by the arguments over human nature, particularly reason vs emotion and social vs selfish, to determine the best way to respond to imperfections within the political world. The former believes in radical, instant change, while the former advocates for slow, typically more legal, means of change.

Expert Rule vs. Populism

A debate influenced by the argument of reason vs emotion in human nature, to determine who should guide a country. The former argues for a small group of highly qualified individuals, with strong reason, that is necessary for leading a successful nation. The latter, on the other hand, seeks to empower the nonelite majority to lead, believing humans are inherently reasonable creatures.

Monism

There is one sole basic good of importance.

Pluralism

There are many vital basic goods.

The State

The central instrument of coercive power in modern societies, tasked with executing the will of the people. 

Liberty vs. Security

Debates whether or not the state should use a great deal of forceful coercion to protect the security of a nation, despite its compromises of citizen freedoms.

Liberty vs. Well-being

Debates whether or not the state should use power to regulate citizens in order to increase their well-being, despite its compromises of citizen freedoms.

Paternalism

When the state uses its power to an extent that puts citizens in the role of “children”, potentially infantilizing them. This is often used as an example scenario to argue against the use of state power to influence well-being.

Nudging

A form of state coercion in which the state alters the environment of citizens, often to achieve the desired effect on well-being. An example of this are “sin taxes” on tobacco products.

Social Contract

The idea in which citizens allow for some of their rights to be infringed upon by the government, in exchange for security.

Free Riders

Members of society who benefit from the labors of others, without any of their own efforts.

False Consciousness

A belief coined by Marx, in which our good consciousness is hijacked by unjust and false ideas and norms in our environments.

Rule of Law

Everyone in a society, including state officials must follow established and consistent rules of conduct.

Rule by Law

When the rule of law applies to everyone but the heads of government.

Originalism

The original meaning of laws should be used in legal proceedings, and argues that legal change should not occur in the courts, rather exclusively the legislature. Judges carry too many emotions and are too attached to their own agendas.

Constitutional Theory

Examines which type of rule of law is the best, studying how to interpret constitutions.

Living Constitutionalism

Acknowledges that the meaning of law changes vastly over time and argues that there are too many ambiguities in the original intentions of a constitution.

Constitutionalist

One who believes in the upholding of laws, even if they are unjust.

Scarce Resources Argument

There are very limited resources for humans, and the inherent function of a government is to distribute said resources.

John Locke

This key thinker is most concerned with the basic good of liberty, negative liberty in particular. They believe that the state should only exist to protect the liberties of the people from others, including from the state itself, thus arguing for a limited state. They do not believe security to be a good of great concern, as they believe the state of nature is a peaceful one, where individuals follow the law of nature, and are able to enforce it themselves. For the reason of the law of nature, this thinker believes human nature to be social and of inherent equal worth.

Thomas Hobbes

This key thinker is most concerned with the basic good of security, as they believe that a state of nature would consist of constant war, motivated by the fear of death and a scarcity of resources. They believe human nature consists of instrumental reasoning and selfishness (to survive). For these reasons, they strongly believe in a strong, potentially authoritative state, built upon the principle of social contract.

Aristotle

This key thinker defined 3 main conceptions of well-being as lives of pleasure, honor, or contemplation, arguing the contemplative life to be the best, as human’s primary function is to use their unique “rational element”. They also believe in the strict upholding of the rule of law, as an allowed infraction could be infectious, leading to disorder and chaos.

Plato

This key thinker believes that reason is the distinguishing ability of humans, which is a part of the human soul they define. They break up the soul into 3 parts: reason, appetite (animalistic instincts and desires), and spirit (the deep emotions that allow humans to resist both reason and appetite). Reason is needed to check the other two parts, however most humans are unable to do this successfully. Additionally, this thinker believes that societies should be organized as a soul is (leaders as reason, soldiers as spirit, citizens as appetite).

Direct Democracy

The process of policy making in which citizens directly vote on each issue. This form is offered as a solution to the vast inequalities within a political community, as each person is able to have an equal say in government (positive liberty). Those who believe in direct democracy typically have a more positive view on human nature, being social and rational. Critics of this say humans are too prone to rash decisions, and humans cannot be trusted to be intellectually qualified to vote.

Indirect Democracy

The process of policy making in which citizens elect representatives to make political decisions. With representatives, the sphere of government is able to expand, ensuring no one can infringe upon the rights of citizens, increasing negative liberty. Critics of this fear its tendency to tend towards oligarchy.

Sortition

A process that could be used in a direct democracy in which members of governmental assemblies are randomly selected through a lottery system. This was used in Ancient Greece.

Epistocracy

A type of democracy under the belief that the wisest, most qualified people should be in charge.

Demagogue

A democratic leader who achieved election through manipulating rhetoric and appealing to emotions. In most views, they are incredibly harmful to democracy.

Institution

A group formed by humans to pursue certain goods. Examples include nonprofits, a university, and legislatures.