Psychology Fundamentals: Theoretical Approaches, Research Methodology, Statistics, and Career Paths

Vocabulary flashcards covering core psychology topics, including theoretical approaches, research methodologies, descriptive and inferential statistics, ethics, and career specializations.

Psychology

The systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes.

Behaviors

Observable actions or responses in both humans and animals.

Mental Processes

Complex cognitive processes that are not directly observable, such as thinking, imagining, studying, and dreaming.

Goals of Psychology

The four primary goals of psychology: to describe how organisms behave, to explain the cause of behavior, to predict how organisms will behave in certain situations, and to control an organism's behavior.

Psychoanalytic Approach

A psychological perspective based on the belief that childhood experiences, unconscious fears, desires, motivations, and sexual or aggressive tendencies heavily influence personality development and psychological problems later in life.

Behavioral Approach

A psychological perspective that studies how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing ones depending on whether environmental events reward or punish these behaviors.

Cognitive Approach

A psychological perspective that examines how information is processed, stored, and used, and how this information influences what individuals attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel.

Social Cognitive Theory

A perspective holding that behaviors are influenced not only by environmental events and reinforcers, but also by observation, imitation, and cognitive thought processes.

Humanistic Approach

A psychological approach emphasizing an individual's freedom in directing their future, capacity for personal growth, intrinsic worth, and potential for self-fulfillment.

Biological Approach

A perspective focusing on how genes, hormones, and the nervous system interact with environments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions, and coping techniques.

Evolutionary Approach

A theoretical approach that studies how evolutionary ideas, such as adaptation and natural selection, explain human behaviors and mental processes.

Cross-Cultural Approach

A psychological perspective that studies the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on psychological and social functioning.

Eclectic Approach

An approach in psychology that uses different theoretical approaches to study the same behavior.

Quantitative Research

Research characterized by concrete, objective, closed-ended, and superficial data collection.

Qualitative Research

Research characterized by abstract, subjective, open-ended, and in-depth data collection.

One Point Data Collection Design

A research design in which one group is measured only one time, making it quick and easy to conduct, but incapable of revealing differences across time.

Cross-Sectional Research Design

A study design in which different age groups are measured at one time, which is quick to execute but cannot reveal individual differences and is subject to cohort effects.

Longitudinal Research Design

A research method in which the same age group is measured at different points across time, making it ideal for developmental research and revealing individual differences without cohort effects.

Sequential Research Design

A research methodology where several same-age groups are measured at different times, allowing researchers to identify both individual differences and cohort effects.

Cohort Effects

Differences between groups of subjects that are caused by the specific historical time period in which they were born rather than age differences.

Naturalistic Observation

Research conducted in the environment in which behavior usually occurs, where researchers observe without controlling events to describe and predict behavior.

Case Study

An in-depth observation of one person or subject used to study rare and unusual conditions, though results cannot be generalized or used to establish causation.

Correlational Study

A research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables without controlling them, used to make predictions and test predictive hypotheses.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A statistic indicating the strength and direction of a relationship, ranging from $-1.00 \times 10^0 \text{ to } +1.00 \times 10^0$, where values closer to absolute $1.00$ represent a stronger relationship.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between variables where both factors vary in the same direction, either increasing together or decreasing together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between variables where factors vary in opposite directions, such that as one increases, the other decreases.

Experiment

A method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following rules and guidelines that minimize error, bias, and chance occurrences.

Independent Variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment that causes the effect.

Dependent Variable

The variable in an experiment that shows the effect of the independent variable and is measured by the researcher.

Confounding Variable

Variables other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable and must be controlled to isolate the true effect of the independent variable.

Placebo Effect

A change in a patient's illness that is attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to an active medical intervention.

Quasi-Experiment

A study design that maintains the conditions of an experiment but lacks random assignment to groups, preventing control of confounding variables and true proof of cause.

Descriptive Statistics

The branch of statistics that provides a means of summarizing data and presenting it in a usable form.

Mean

The arithmetic average of all scores, calculated by adding all scores together and dividing by the total count ($\frac{\sum x}{n}$), which is sensitive to extreme outliers.

Median

The point in a distribution of scores that divides the distribution exactly in half, making it less sensitive to extreme scores than the mean.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a set of scores, often used as a measure of preference or popularity.

Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped distribution curve where approximately $68.26\%$ of scores fall within $\pm 1$ standard deviation, $95.44\%$ fall within $\pm 2$ standard deviations, and $99.74\%$ fall within $\pm 3$ standard deviations.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical analysis of two or more sets of numerical data used to determine statistical significance ($\alpha = 0.05$ level) and indicate confidence in generalizing sample conclusions to a population.

Clinical Psychologist

A doctoral-level professional who completes 4-5 years of postgraduate education plus 1 year in supervised therapy, specializing in diagnosing and treating abnormal behavior.

Counseling Psychologist

A doctoral-level professional similar to a clinical psychologist who focuses on marriage, family, and vocational treatment, often operating out of non-psychology departments with humanistic approaches.

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor (MD) with clinical training specialized in diagnosing physical and neurological causes of abnormal behaviors and treating them, often with prescription drugs.

Psychological Work Settings Distribution

The breakdown of career environments for psychologists, consisting of $49\%$ in private practice or therapy settings, $28\%$ in college or university settings, $13\%$ in other career settings, $6\%$ in industrial settings, and $4\%$ in secondary schools.