Unit 1 Assessment

1. Selim I

Ottoman sultan (1512–1520) who expanded the empire by defeating the Safavids at Chaldiran (1514) and conquering Mamluk Egypt and Syria (1516–1517), making the Ottomans a leading Sunni Muslim power.

2. Suleiman the Magnificent

Ottoman sultan (1520–1566) who brought the empire to its peak in military and cultural power. Captured much of Hungary after the Battle of Mohács (1526) and expanded Ottoman influence across Europe and the Middle East.

3. Mehmet II

Ottoman sultan (1451–1481) known as Mehmet the Conqueror. Captured Constantinople on May 29, 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire and making the city the Ottoman capital.

4. Islamic Golden Age

Period of major Muslim scientific, mathematical, medical, and cultural achievements (approximately 750–1258). Scholars such as al-Khwarizmi advanced algebra, while Baghdad became a major center of learning.

5. Five Pillars of Islam

Five central Muslim religious duties established during Islam's early development in the 7th century: declaration of faith, daily prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca.

6. Umayyad Dynasty

First major hereditary Islamic caliphate (661–750), based in Damascus. Expanded Islamic rule across North Africa and into Spain in 711 before being overthrown by the Abbasids in 750.

7. Crusades

Christian military campaigns beginning in 1095 to gain control of Jerusalem and other holy lands. Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099; Saladin recaptured it in 1187; the last major mainland crusader stronghold fell in 1291.

8. Sunni-Shiite Split

Began in 632 CE after Muhammad's death over who should lead Muslims. Sunnis supported Abu Bakr, while Shiites believed leadership belonged to Muhammad's family, especially Ali. The killing of Husayn at Karbala in 680 deepened the division.

9. The Mamluks

Military rulers who established a sultanate in Egypt in 1250. Defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 and resisted Crusaders before being conquered by the Ottomans in 1516–1517.

10. Janissaries

Elite Ottoman infantry established in the 14th century, originally recruited through the devshirme system. They gained political power but resisted military reforms until Sultan Mahmud II abolished them in 1826.

11. Mehmet (Muhammad Ali)

Governor of Egypt from 1805 to 1848 who modernized the army, agriculture, and government. Expanded Egyptian power and weakened the Mamluks, helping establish the foundations of modern Egypt.

12. Urabi Revolt

Egyptian nationalist and military uprising (1879–1882) against foreign influence, unfair military treatment, and financial control. Britain defeated Urabi's forces in September 1882 and occupied Egypt.

13. Tanzimat

Ottoman reform period (1839–1876) aimed at modernizing the military, government, and legal system. The reforms promoted greater equality among religious communities and led toward the Ottoman Constitution of 1876.

14. Millet System

Ottoman system, developed over several centuries, allowing religious communities such as Christians and Jews to manage aspects of their own education, worship, and personal affairs under religious leaders.

15. Constantinople (1453)

Byzantine capital captured by Mehmet II on May 29, 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans made it their capital and developed it into a major political and commercial center.

16. Crimean War

War (1853–1856) between Russia and an alliance including the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France. Ended with the Treaty of Paris on March 30, 1856, temporarily limiting Russian influence in the Black Sea.

17. Suez Canal

Canal in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas, opened on November 17, 1869. Shortened trade routes between Europe and Asia and became strategically important to Britain.

18. Abdul Hamid II

Ottoman sultan (1876–1909) who suspended parliament in 1878 and ruled autocratically. Restored the constitution after the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 but was deposed in 1909.

19. Young Turks

Reform movement that restored the Ottoman Constitution in 1908 and removed Abdul Hamid II in 1909. Its leading organization, the Committee of Union and Progress, later dominated the government during World War I.

20. Young Ottomans

Intellectual reform movement beginning around 1865 that advocated constitutional government and limits on the sultan's power. Helped inspire the Ottoman Constitution of 1876.

21. D'Arcy Concession

Agreement signed on May 28, 1901, granting William Knox D'Arcy oil exploration rights in Persia. Oil was discovered in 1908, increasing British economic influence in the region.

22. Sykes-Picot Agreement

Secret British-French agreement signed on May 16, 1916, to divide much of the Ottoman Empire's Arab territories into areas of European control after World War I. Conflicted with Arab hopes for independence.

23. Arab Revolt / Faisal and Hussein

Arab uprising against Ottoman rule beginning in June 1916, led by Sharif Hussein and supported by Britain. His son Faisal helped capture Damascus in 1918, but European powers limited Arab independence after the war.

24. Armenian Genocide

Mass deportations and killings of Armenians by Ottoman authorities beginning in 1915 during World War I. Approximately 1–1.5 million Armenians died, devastating Armenian communities and creating a widespread diaspora.

25. Mandate System

League of Nations system established in 1919–1920 that placed former Ottoman territories under British and French administration. Britain controlled Palestine and Iraq, while France controlled Syria and Lebanon, despite local demands for independence.