EXAM #1 Sociological Theory

What is Theory? 

Theory is an explanation for why something happens. A theory allows scientist to make predictions. 

What is the Enlightenment? Why is the enlightenment a logical starting point for understanding the development of sociological thought? 

 The enlightenment was a time when people started using reason + science to understand the world. *Important because it encouraged people to question society & Understand how it works

What is political, economic, and social changes that  provided the subject matter of classical Sociology? 

Society was changing quickly with changes in government, economy, and everyday life. Sociologists wanted to understand these changes.  

Describe what feudal society looked like including its form of economic production, legal/political arrangements, and social hierarchies. 

Feudal society was a society where land was very important 

King → At the top, he got the cash and tax payments in order to fund knighting his son or marrying off his daughter

Lord/Nobles → Controlled the land, got the majority of the crops, wool, livestock, etc.  

Peasants/Serfs→ Worked on the land, got only what they needed to survive and feed their families not much else

What are the economic and social changes that led to the development of capitalism?

• Decline of Feudalism: People became less tied to feudal lords & gained more freedom to work and trade 

• Growth of trade: Merchants began trading goods over longer distances, creating more wealth 

• Rise of Cities: Towns and Cities grew as centers of business & Commerce

• Private Property: People increasingly owned land. Business, and other properties 

• Money economy: Money became more important than exchanging goods or services directly 

• Industrialization: Factories & machines allowed businesses to produce goods on a much larger scale 

• Social Mobility: People could become wealthy through business & trade rather than only through inherited status 

What are some of the social problems that emerged as feudal economies began to be replaced by factories? 

• Poor working conditions: Factory workers worked long hours for low wages 

• Child labor: Children were working in factories & mines 

• Urban overcrowding: People moved to cities for jobs which led to crowded or unhealthy housing 

• Poverty & Inequality: Wealth became concentrated among factory owners & business owners while workers remained poor 

• Loss of traditional communities: People left rural villages and traditional ways of life to work in cities 

• Job insecurity: Workers could lose their jobs easily and had little job protection 

• Worker exploitation: Employers could take advantage of their workers more easily because there were few labor laes or unions

Define philosophical idealism 

The view that mind, consciousness, or ideas are more fundamental than Physical matter.  A.k.a reality is, in some sense, dependent on the mind or ideas, not just on Physical objects existing independently on us

What is empiricism? How is this theoretical perspective important to the development of sociology? 

Empiricism means learning about things by using facts and evidence. It was important to the development of sociology because it allowed scientists to study society by collecting data, using observations, and looking for patterns. 

What is positivism? In what way is positivism a challenge to idealist philosophy?

Positivism means studying society. Using science + evidence 

Example: Instead of guessing why a crime happens. Researchers can connect data & look for patterns

What is Materialism? What is Marx’s starting point?

 Materialism is studying how real-life conditions, especially economic needs, shape human life. Marx starts with how people produce what they need to survive.

What makes humans different from animals, according to Marx? Why is it significant? 

Humans actively produce the things they need to survive instead of only taking what nature provides. This matters because production and labor shape human life and society.

What were two criticisms Marx had of Hegel’s idealism?

• Hegel focused too much on abstract ideas instead of real-life conditions.

• Marx believed we should start by studying how people live, work, and produce what they need to survive.

What are the three fundamental concepts of Marx’s materialist view of history?

• Mode of production: How a society produces what it needs to survive.

• Means of production: The tools and resources used to produce goods, such as factories, machines, and land.

• Relations of production: The relationships between people involved in production, including who owns resources and who works for them.

What are Marx’s four historical periods?

• Tribal: People share resources and produce what they need together.

• Ancient: Production relies on ownership and systems such as slavery.

• Feudal: Lords own land, and peasants work on it.

• Capitalist: Capitalists own businesses and factories, while workers sell their labor for wages.

How does Marx define social class?

Social class depends on a person's relationship to the means of production.

• Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class that owns the means of production.

• Proletariat: The working class that sells its labor for wages.

What is commodity fetishism? Give an example. How, when, and why does it emerge?

Commodity fetishism is when people focus on the value or status of products while ignoring the workers and social relationships behind them.

• Example: Buying an expensive shirt without thinking about who made it.

• How: The relationships between workers and owners become hidden behind products.

• When: Under capitalism, when goods are produced for exchange and profit.

• Why: People focus on the price and value of products instead of the labor that created them.

What is ideology?

Ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, and values that shape how people understand society. For Marx, ideology can support the ruling class and make inequality seem normal or acceptable.

What are the five building blocks of Marx’s theory of ideology?

Your notes list four building blocks, so check whether your professor provided a fifth one. Here are the four you included:

• Social existence determines consciousness: How people live influences what they believe.

• Capitalism as social relations: Capitalism involves relationships between owners and workers, not just economic rules.

• Economic inequality: Marx argues that inequality is not simply natural; it is connected to the capitalist system.

• Commodities and exchange value: The value of products reflects labor and social relationships.

Where do ideologies originate? How are they reproduced? How do they function?

• Origin: The material conditions and economic relationships of society.

• Reproduction: Institutions such as schools, religion, and workplaces spread and reinforce beliefs.

• Function: Ideologies shape how people understand society and make existing arrangements seem natural or acceptable.

What does it mean when ideologies make circumstances appear “upside down”?

It means ideology makes society appear different from how it really works. For example, capitalism may appear equal because workers can choose employers, while hiding their dependence on wages and the power owners have over them.

What are three criticisms Marx had of Adam Smith and David Ricardo?

• Capitalism is not eternal: Marx argued capitalism developed historically and can eventually change.

• Competition is not always beneficial: Marx argued competition can increase inequality and exploitation.

• Commodity value is not simply inherent: Marx argued value is connected to human labor and social relationships.

 What is a commodity?

A commodity is something that can satisfy a human need or want and is produced for exchange.

What are the two values of a commodity?

• Use value: How useful something is. Example: Bread satisfies hunger.

• Exchange value: What something can be exchanged for. Example: Ten loaves of bread exchanged for one shirt.

What is the origin of exchange value? How does it emerge?

Exchange value is connected to abstract human labor. It emerges when goods are produced and exchanged in markets, allowing their values to be compared with other goods.

How does exchange value affect social relationships?

People begin focusing on buying, selling, and the value of products. Under capitalism, relationships between workers and owners become centered on wages, labor, and profit.

What are the two types of human labor that produce commodities?

• Useful (concrete) labor: Specific work that creates a useful product. Example: A baker making bread.

• Abstract labor: Labor considered in terms of human labor time and energy, regardless of the specific job. Example: Comparing the labor involved in making bread with the labor involved in making a coat.

What is the difference between necessary labor and surplus labor?

• Necessary labor: The time workers spend producing value equivalent to their wages.

• Surplus labor: The additional time workers spend producing value beyond what is equivalent to their wages.

Example: If four hours of work produce value equivalent to a worker's wages during an eight-hour day, the other four hours are surplus labor.

What is surplus value? How is it created?

Surplus value is the value workers produce beyond the value equivalent to their wages. It is created when workers produce more value than they receive in wages, and the capitalist keeps the difference.

Why are wages deceptive, according to Marx?

Wages make it appear that workers are paid for the full value of their work. Marx argues that workers can produce more value than they receive in wages, allowing capitalists to keep the surplus value.

What did Smith and Ricardo mean by a free market, and why did Marx argue labor is not truly free?

• Smith and Ricardo: Workers are free because they can choose employers and sell their labor for wages.

• Marx: Workers are not truly free because they must sell their labor to survive if they do not own the means of production

Define fetishism.

Fetishism is when relationships between people appear as relationships between things, such as products, prices, and money. It hides the human labor behind a product and makes its value seem natural or magical.

What is commodity fetishism? Give an example. How, when, and why does it emerge?

Commodity fetishism is when products seem to have value and power of their own, while the labor of the workers who made them is hidden.

• Example: Wood becomes a table through a carpenter's labor, but when sold, its value appears to come naturally from the product itself.

• How: The market hides the social relationships and labor behind products.

• When: When goods are privately produced and exchanged through markets.

• Why: Producers connect through the products they trade rather than directly with one another.

Define primitive accumulation. Discuss its stages.

Primitive accumulation is the process through which the means of production become the property of one class, separating workers from the resources they need to survive.

• Stage 1 — Expropriation of land: Peasants were forcibly removed from land they had farmed and shared.

• Stage 2 — Creation of the proletariat: Peasants lost access to land and tools, forcing them to sell their labor for wages.

Compare simple cooperation and complex cooperation. Give an example of each.

• Simple cooperation: Several workers perform the same type of work, and each makes the entire product from beginning to end. Example: Several craftspeople each make a complete carriage.

• Complex cooperation: Workers divide the production process into separate tasks, and each worker completes only part of the product. Example: An assembly line where each worker performs one task.

How did Hegel and Feuerbach influence Marx's theory of alienation? How did Marx agree and disagree with them?

• Hegel: Marx agreed with the idea of alienation as estrangement but disagreed that it mainly came from the mind or consciousness. Marx believed alienation came from capitalism and real economic conditions.

• Feuerbach: Marx agreed that humans created the idea of God and then became alienated from the qualities they projected onto God. However, Marx argued that Feuerbach did not focus enough on practical human activity and real social and economic conditions.

What is Marx's view of human nature? Why is labor essential?

Marx believed that human beings define themselves through their laboring activity. Labor is essential because humans produce things to meet their needs and express their human abilities through work.

What are Marx's four types of alienation? Explain each.

• Alienation from the product: Workers make products but do not own them. Example: A factory worker makes a phone but cannot claim the phone as their own.

• Alienation from productive activity: Workers lose control over how they work, and work becomes a way to earn money rather than express themselves. Example: An assembly-line worker repeats the same task all day.

• Alienation from the species: Workers become disconnected from their human potential and creativity. Example: A worker has no opportunity to use their creativity because their job is repetitive.

• Alienation from fellow humans: Workers become disconnected from others because of competition. Example: Employees compete against one another instead of working together.

What is the origin and function of the state, according to Marx?

The state develops from society's economic conditions and relationships between social classes. It does not exist separately from society or remain the same throughout history.

What was Hegel's view of the state? How did Marx agree or disagree?

• Hegel: The state represents moral values and maintains harmony between society's public and private interests.

• Marx: The state develops from real economic conditions and class relationships, not abstract moral ideas.

What is dialectic? What are its central principles?

Dialectic is a way of understanding how things are connected and change over time.

• Everything is connected.

• Contradictions create change.

• Change builds on and transforms what came before.

How does Hegel's dialectical theory differ from Marx's?

• Hegel: History changes because ideas change.

• Marx: History changes because material and economic conditions change.

Explain Marx's dialectical theory of history. Give an example.

Marx believed societies change through economic contradictions and class struggles. For example, conflicts between feudal lords and peasants helped lead to the development of capitalism.

 Define class consciousness. Give an example.

Class consciousness is when workers recognize their shared struggles and interests as a class. Example: Factory workers realize they face similar problems and form a union to demand better wages.

Define class-in-itself and class-for-itself. Why is this important?

• Class-in-itself: People share the same economic position but have not yet recognized their common interests.

• Class-for-itself: People recognize their shared interests and organize to defend them.

This matters because workers can work together to challenge exploitation and change society once they develop class consciousness.

How does Marx define communism? What are its mode, means, and relations of production? What ideology might dominate?

Communism is a classless society in which the means of production are collectively owned.

• Mode of production: Production is organized around collective ownership.

• Means of production: Factories, land, tools, and resources are shared.

• Relations of production: People cooperate rather than having owners exploit workers.

• Possible dominant ideology: Equality and cooperation, rather than beliefs that justify class privilege.

What does Marx mean when he says the bourgeoisie produces its own “gravediggers”?

Marx means that capitalists create the working class that will eventually challenge capitalism. As workers experience exploitation, they recognize their shared struggles, unite, and may overthrow the capitalist system.

What is wrong with capitalism, according to Marx?

Capitalism exploits workers, creates inequality between the rich and poor, alienates workers from their labor, and creates conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.

What should capitalism be praised for? What benefit did Marx admire most?

Capitalism helped develop technology, transportation, production, and global trade. Marx most admired its development of productive forces, because it greatly increased society's ability to produce goods and wealth.

 What is the internal contradiction of capitalism?

Capitalism depends on workers to create wealth but allows owners to keep the surplus value produced by workers. This creates inequality and class conflict, which Marx believed could eventually lead to capitalism's collapse.

What are the stages of proletarian development that lead to conflict with the bourgeoisie?

1. Individual struggles: Workers fight employers individually for better conditions.

2. Collective struggles: Workers organize into groups and unions.

3. Class consciousness: Workers recognize their shared struggles and interests.

4. Political struggle: Workers unite to challenge the bourgeoisie for political power.

5. Revolution: Workers overthrow capitalism and work toward a classless society.

What two groups will not participate in revolutionary change? Why?

• Lumpenproletariat: People outside the organized working class, including marginalized people and those without stable employment. Marx believed they lacked consistent class consciousness and could be influenced by the bourgeoisie.

• Bourgeoisie: Business owners who benefit from capitalism and want to protect their wealth and power.

How does Marx define communism?

Communism is a classless society in which the means of production are collectively owned, exploitation is eliminated, and class conflict ends.

How does Marx respond to the criticism that communism abolishes private property?

Marx argues that communism does not mean taking away everyone's personal belongings. It means abolishing bourgeois private property, such as factories and businesses owned by capitalists, which allows them to profit from workers' labor. Under communism, these productive resources would be collectively owned.