Exam II: islam and christian Theology REAL STUDY

Mahfouz's View on Islam

Muhammad and Islam represent the 'middle way' between strict Judaism and lenient Christianity.

Rashidun Caliphs

The first four leaders after Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) who unified the early Muslim ummah.

The Ridda Wars

Campaigns led by Abu Bakr to bring rebellious tribes back under central Muslim authority.

Ibn Taymiiyya

A 14th-century Muslim scholar who opposed religious practices he considered unapproved additions (bidʿa).

Sunni-Shia Division

Began over leadership after Muhammad, with Sunnis accepting Abu Bakr and Shias believing Ali was the rightful successor.

Ahmadiyya Movement

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in India in 1889, recognizing him as the promised Messiah and Mahdi.

Salafism

A Sunni reform movement arguing that Muslims should return to the pristine practices of the earliest pious ancestors.

Tawhid (Salafism)

Strict monotheism that avoids the veneration or devotion to saints.

Hakimiyya

The idea of divine sovereignty over society, following the model of Prophet Muhammad.

Al-wala wa-bara

The doctrine holding that Muslims should associate with Muslims and disassociate from non-Muslims.

Takfir

The practice in which one Muslim labels another Muslim as an apostate or non-believer.

Bida (Bidʿa)

The concept of introducing something new to Islam that was not present during the first three centuries.

Trends within Salafism

Quietists (da'wa/education), Activists (political reform), and Jihadists (violent jihad).

Etymology of Sufism

Derived from the Arabic word for 'wool,' worn by early ascetics living a simple lifestyle to draw close to God.

Ultimate Goal of Sufism

Seeking a profound, intimate union with God through inner purification and mysticism.

Sheikh and Murid

The master and disciple relationship central to Sufi spiritual guidance.

Silsila

The spiritual lineage linking each Sufi sheikh back to earlier masters and ultimately to the Prophet Muhammad.

Fanaa

The Sufi concept of 'dying to self.'

Dhikr

Special prayers and practices that lift up the soul along the path toward God.

Who was Abd al-Jabbar?

A judge and Mu'tazili theologian who lived from 935 to 1025.

Where did Abd al-Jabbar live and work?

In Rayy, a city in modern-day Tehran, Iran, with a large Christian population.

What is the Mughni?

Abd al-Jabbar's major work containing a theological refutation of Christian teaching.

What is the main argument of Abd al-Jabbar's treatise?

Christians deviated from the true teachings and practices of Christ.

What concept shaped Abd al-Jabbar's view of Christian history?

The gradual corruption (tahrif) of the religion of Jesus.

What famous quote is attributed to the text regarding Rome and Christianity?

"Romans did not become Christians. Christians became Romans."

What unusual external sources does Abd al-Jabbar quote in his refutation?

The Bible, the Christian creed, and other Christian writings.

What does Qur'an 5:73 criticize regarding the Trinity?

The belief that Allah is the third of three.

Which ecumenical council addressed the Trinitarian Controversy in 325?

The Council of Nicaea.

Which ecumenical council addressed the Christological Controversy in 451?

The Council of Chalcedon.

What is cited as a miracle proving Muhammad's prophethood regarding Christianity?

His ability to know about Christianity despite being illiterate.

What does Jesus state in John 10:30 regarding his relationship with the Father?

"I and the Father are one."

Who wrote the three-volume series Jesus of Nazareth?

Pope Benedict XVI.

Who authored The Case for Jesus?

Brant Pitre.

What are the three true persons of the Christian Trinity?

The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

What are the distinctively modern traits used to describe Muhammad in the course review?

Cheerful, joyful, and charitable.

When was Naguib Mahfouz's novel written and in what language?

Written in 1959 in Egypt in Arabic.

When was Mahfouz's novel translated into English in the US?

1981.

What is the primary literary form of Mahfouz's work discussed in class?

An allegorical novel exploring human history through religious and philosophical themes.

Who is the mysterious patriarch ruling the unnamed alley in Mahfouz's novel?

Gabalawi.

Who does Adham represent in Mahfouz's allegorical novel?

Adam.

Who does Gabal represent in Mahfouz's allegorical novel?

Moses.

Who does Rifaa represent in Mahfouz's allegorical novel?

Jesus.

Who does Qasim represent in Mahfouz's allegorical novel?

Muhammad.

Why does Gabalawi banish his youngest son, Adham?

For breaking into Gabalawi's inner room, prompted by Idris and Omayma.

How is Gabal characterized in the novel?

Incorruptible, passionate for justice, uncompromising, and an effective leader.

How is Rifaa characterized in the novel?

Gentle, friendly, a healer with no desire for wealth or power.

How is Qaasim characterized in the novel?

A shrewd, wealthy businessman who imposes strict justice, but is intolerant and conquered by his lusts.

According to Mahfouz's portrayal, what were the extremes of Judaism and Christianity?

Judaism was too strict (justice), and Christianity was too soft (mercy and forgiveness).

How does Mahfouz position Muhammad (Qasim) relative to Judaism and Christianity?

Muhammad represents the middle way, balancing justice and mercy.

In the discussion on exorcism (Scene 2), what do the demons symbolize?

Hatred and hostility rather than actual possessions.

What does Arafa symbolize in the novel's conclusion?

Science, rationalism, and the modern intellectual whose actions lead to Gabalawi's demise.

What does Gabalawi's demise symbolize in the modern era?

The decline of divine authority.

How does the concept of happiness evolve in Mahfouz's novel?

From obedience to Gabalawi, to resistance and justice via prophets, and finally to human effort and knowledge through science.

Religious Tract Subject

The Greatest Messenger of God

Tract Tone

Distinctively modern rather than classical or medieval.

Literary Excerpt

N. Mahfouz's Children of the Alley.

Chapter 8 Reading

Contemporary Muslim Narratives of Islam's Emergence.

Sunnism vs. Shi'ism

Major differences centered around the Imam and Imamate.

Twelver Occultation

Belief that the twelfth Imam is hidden and will return.

Taqiyya

Concealing one's faith to avoid persecution or harm.

Fatwa

A legal ruling or opinion on a point of Islamic law.

Who developed the concept of scientific miracles in the Qur'an?

Maurice Bucaille.

What is a Faqih?

An Islamic jurist, legal scholar, or expert in Islamic law.

What does Wilayat al-faqih mean?

Guardianship of the jurist, giving the Faqih authority over political and religious affairs.

Name the four rightly guided caliphs.

Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.

Why was Abu Bakr selected as the first caliph?

He travelled with Muhammad, was the first male convert, and was designated to lead prayer.

How many canonical hadiths do Sunnis believe in?

Six canonical hadiths.

How many canonical hadiths do Shi'ites believe in?

Four canonical hadiths.

How is leadership structured in Sunnism versus Shi'ism?

Sunnism uses election under a caliph; Shi'ism uses divine appointment under an Imam.

Who was the first Imam in Shi'ism?

Ali.

What happened at the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE?

Hussein and his entire household with 72 companions were killed.

What is the spiritual significance of Hussein's death in Shi'ism?

It represents the suffering of the Prophet's family and community, rendering merit and divine compassion.

What is the Day of Ashura?

The annual remembrance of Hussein's murder observed on the 10th of Muharram.

What is Occultation in Shia Islam?

The belief that the 12th Imam was taken into invisibility by God and will return.

Who was Ayatollah Khomeini?

An Iranian politician, revolutionary, and cleric (1902-1989) who developed wilayat al-faqih.

What issues did Khomeini challenge the Iranian government on?

Monarchical despotism and cooperation with colonial powers.

Who was Maurice Bucaille?

A medical doctor and convert to Islam who authored The Bible, The Qurʾān, and Science.

What is Bucaille's central argument?

The Qur'an contains scientific miracles proving Islam is a true religion.

Who was Carl G. Pfander?

A German missionary to India who wrote The Balance of Truth.

How does Catholic teaching view Christianity regarding text?

It is the religion of the Incarnate Living Word, not a religion of the book.

How does Catholic teaching view Bible authorship?

A joint effort between God and human authors reflecting historical contexts.

What did Pope John Paul II call the 'two wings' to reach truth?

Faith and reason.

What is the primary intention of the Bible according to Pope John Paul II?

To teach theological truths rather than scientific treatises.

Who formulated the Big Bang theory and was a Catholic scientist?

Georges Lemaître.

What was Bucaille's style of argument?

Polemical and apologetic.

Why does Catholic scholarship reject Bucaille's reading of scripture?

It rejects scientific miracles and emphasizes the human authors' historical context.

Carl Gottlieb Pfander

German missionary (1803-1865) and author of The Balance of Truth.

The Balance of Truth (Mizan al-haqq)

A text written in 1829 by Pfander to present the gospel to Muslims.

Rahmatullah Kairanawi

Islamic scholar who defeated Pfander in an 1854 debate and wrote The Exposition of Truth.

Pfander's Approach

Wrote in an Islamic style and used the Qur'an to present the gospel.

Divine Revelation

The required guidance for humans to truly come to know God.

Six Conditions of True Religion

Criteria to evaluate which religious revelation is true and from God.

Condition 1 of True Revelation

Must satisfy the yearning for truth, pardon, purification, and eternal happiness.

Condition 2 of True Revelation

Must accord with the moral law written in human hearts (conscience).

Condition 3 of True Revelation

Must reveal God as just, holy, good, and pure.

Condition 4 of True Revelation

Must declare God as one, eternal, almighty, merciful, and Creator.

Condition 5 of True Revelation

Must make clear the way of salvation.

Condition 6 of True Revelation

Must recognize that no book or prophet can fully reveal God.

Concupiscible and Irascible Appetites

Appetites identified by Thomas Aquinas that draw humans away from morality.

Dignitatis Humanae

Church document stating man must not be forced to act against his conscience.