Lab Practical 1

Phenotype

Physical characteristics

Genotype

Genetic sequence

Allele

variant of a gene

evolution

change in frequency of alleles in a population overtime

Natural Selection

individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive

Adaptation

heritable trait that is beneficial to survive and reproduce

fitness

one’s ability to survive and reproduce (S+R)

Genetic Variation

Differences in genotype or alleles in a population

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A population’s allele frequencies are stable unless acted upon by some evolutionary force

Hardy-Weinberg Principle assumptions?

infinitely large population, no mutations, no migration/emitgration, no selective pressure(being hunted)

How to calculate freq. of alleles?

You have to add both BB from dominant and the B from the heterozygous So BB(Black) survivors 9: 9X2 + 7= 25

Bb (Brown) Survivors: 7 +32= 39

bb(white) survivors: 16: 16 ×2 =32

Independent variable (x-axis)

what changed or compared in the experiment

Dependent variable (y-axis)

what you measured in response

Photoautotroph

photosynthesis

Chemoautotroph

energy from inorganic chemical source

Heterotroph

energy from organic carbon source (must break down)

Symbiotic relationships

living on or inside another organism and obtaining nutrients

What are the two major groups of prokaryotic organisms?

Bacteria and Archaea

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes similarities

ribosomes, DNA, cell membrane, cell wall

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes differences

P: No nucleus, small more diverse, cells are simpler, flagella

Euk: Nucleus, bigger, less diverse, cell division is diff. membrane bound organelles

3 Shapes of Prokaryotic cells?

Coccus = spherical ex: streptococcus

Bacillus = rod-shaped ex: lactobacillus

Spirillum = spiral ex: Rhodospirillum

Lactobacillus and Streptococcus

Yogurt forming Bacteria

Bacillus - Coccus

Chemoheterotroph

Nonmotile - randomv vibration due to molecules bumping into one another

Used for food processing

Rhodospirillum rubrum

Domain: Bacteria

Spirillum

Motile (flagellum): spiral motion

Photosynthesis under low O2 (turns purple red when low)

Oscillatoria

Phylum: Cyanobacteria

Filamentous

Bacillus

Whip-like motion

Binary fission

Autotrophic

Gloeocapsa

Phylum:Cyanobacteria

Domain: Bacteria

Coccus

Nonmotile

Photoautotrophic

Anabaena

Phylum: Cyanobacteria

Heterocyst= nitrogen-fixing cell

Coccus

Non-motile

Filamentous

Photoautotrophi

Halobacterium salinarum

Archaea

Bacillus

Motile (flagellum) Jerky/wiggly movement

Extremophile/halophile (thrive in high salt environment

Pinkish color when low o2 environment in anaerobic conditions

Symbiotic mutualistic relationship: gives Azolla plant nitrogen, lives on azollo (protection)

What is a protist?

a eukaryotic organism that isn’t an animal, plant or fungus

Monophyletic

includes common ancestors and descendants

Paraphyletic

common ancestors but not all descendants

Polyphyletic

no common ancestor

Unicellular

Single cell organism

Colonial

identical cells that are independent but live together

Multicellular

more than one cell, dependent on each other

What are 3 ways protists can contain food?

Photosynthesis, consuming organic matter(absorption), phagocytosis (eats it)

Primary endosymbiosis

cyanobacteria was engulfed and became mitochondria (all euS

Secondary endosymbiosis

bacteria engulfed and became chloroplast (not all euks)

Chlamydomonas

Lineage Archaeplastida (Plantae)

Phylum Chlorophyta

Common name: Green algae

Single-celled

Photosynthetic

Motile (flagella)

Volvox

Lineage Archaeplastida (Plantae)

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green algae)

Colonial

Motile (flagella)

Photosynthetic Autotroph

Spirogyra

Lineage Archaeplastida (Plantae)

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

Colonial - Nonmotile (free floating) - Spirally arranged chloroplasts

Photosynthetic—autotroph

Ulva

Lineage Archaeplastida (Plantae)

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

Multicellular - Nonmotile - Photosynthetic Autotroph

Chondrus

Lineage Archaeplastida

Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)

Irish Moss

Multicellular - Nonmotile - Photosynthetic Autotroph

Fucus

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Orchophyta (brown algae)

Multicellular - Air Bladders- Nonmotile - Autotroph

Nereocystis (bull kelp)

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Orchophyta (Brown algae)

Multicellular - Air bladders - Nonmotile - Autotroph

Diatoms

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Ochrophyta

Unicellular - Silica cell walls - Diverse shapes

Class: Bacillariophyta

Some nonmotile, some motile (gliding)

Euglena

Lineage Excavata

Phylum Euglenozoa (Euglenoids)

Autotrophic &/or Heterotrophic

Unicellular - Motile (flagella)

Paramecium caudatum

Lineage Alveolata

Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates)

Heterotrophic - Unicellular - Motile (cilia) (for feeding and movement)

(grayish)

Paramecium bursaria

Lineage Alveolata

Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates)

Heterotrophic - Unicellular - Motile (Cilia) - Contains endosymbiotic algae (green purple)

Chaos

Lineage Amoebozoa

Phylum Amoebozoa (Amoebozoans)

Heterotrophic - Unicellular - Motile (pseudopodia/amoeboid motion)

Plant Diversity Evolution

Green Algae → Nonvascular ( complex gametangia)→ vascular seedless (embryo retention; vascular tissue; sporophyte dominated life cycle) → gymnosperms (pollen; seeds) & angiosperms (flowers; fruit)

Sporophyte

the diploid (2n) stage of a plant’s life cycle that produces haploid (n) spores through meiosis: basically produces spores that can grow into gametophyte generation

Spore

a reproductive cell that can develop into a new organism without fertilization

Sporangia

structures of plants and fungi where spores are produced and stored.

Gametophyte

Is the haploid (n) stage of a plant’s life cycle that produces gametes (sperm & eggs) through mitosis; produces sex cells needed for fertilization and the formation of a new sporophyte.

Gamete

a haploid reproductive cell such as sperm or egg, that joins with another gamete during fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote.

Gametangia

Structures in plants and algae where gametes (sperm and eggs) are produced.

Antheridia (moss)

Male- sperm

Archegonia (moss)

female- eggs

Alternation of generations life cycle

Two gametes get fertilized → zygote which undergoes mitosis → sporophyte, which undergoes meiosis→ spores which germinate and go under mitosis to produce→ Gametophyte (generation) which goes under mitosis to produce → gametes → fusion to zygote

Homosporous

only one type of spore produced (nonvascular and seedless vascular)

Heterosporous

two types of spores produced

microspores - male gametophyte megaspores- female gametophyte

(all seed plants and some seedless vascular )

Phylum Bryophyta

Nonvascular (Mosses)

Contain gametangia, where gametes develop

Archegonia have a bulge in the center

Antheridia are shorter and darker in color

Homosporous - Fertilization requires water

Phylum Monilophyta

Seedless vascular plants: ferns

Phylum Monilophyta

Sporophyte is dominant stage

Gametophyte contain gametangia, where gametes develop

Antheridium(sperm) and Archegonium (egg)

Homosporous - Fertilization requires water

Sori contain sporangia: undergo meiosis (one sorus (dot))

Selaginella (clubmoss)

Seed plants

All heterosporous - seeds have 2n embryo, store fat and seed coat

Female gametophytes and eggs develop in ovule, males are called pollen grain

Fertilization NOT dependent on water

Microspores & Megaspores

Phylum Coniferophyta (Pines)

Seed plants: Gymnosperms

Ovules and polled produced in cones

Male (pollen cones) are small yellow (microspores)

Female (ovulate cones) are the big pine cones (megaspores)

Seed is small spinning thing

Phylum Anthophyta: Flower

Seed plants: Angiosperms - Sepals (leaf part under petal) Receptacle the stem under ovary

Male Parts: Stamen - Anther: produces pollen - Filament

Female Parts: Carpel/pistil - Stigma - Style -Ovary (contains ovules)

Main organs of plants?

Roots, stems, leavesD

Dermal Tissue (epi)

Protection, Gas exchange, support

Ground Tissue

A. Parenchyma (mesophyll)

metabolic functions (photosynthesis, wound repair)

Pith

storage center of the plant (apart of ground tissue)

Cortex

middle outer water storage (apart of ground tissue)

Vascular tissue

Vascular bundle/cylinder Xylem : water & mineral transport (wxyz) Phloem: sugar transport (pqrs)

Apical meristem

Length & height (primary growth): continuous cell division/ cell mitosis at the bottom of roots and tips of stems (3 major tissue types)

Lateral meristem

Width and diameter: cell division is outward (secondary growth)

Produces wood (secondary xylem) and bark (secondary phloem)

Fibrous (grass)

Monocot root parallel leaf veins

Taproots (sweet gum seeding)

Dicot: webbed

Roots

made up protoderm, grown meristem, pro cambium, root apical meristem, root cap

Stems

Outside: Node, internode, leaf, petiole

Inside: Pith, xylem +phloem, cortex

Leaves

Petiole(part that connects leaf to stem) → Veins

Palisade Parenchyma on top

Spongy Palisade on bottom

Stoma

opening on leaf that allows gas exchange and prevents water loss

has guard cells with chloroplasts that control when to open and close

Rhodospirillum rubrum (bacteria)

Oscillatoria (cyanobacteria)

Gloeocapsa (cyanobacteria)

Anabaena (cyanobacteria)

Halobacterium salinarum (Archaea)

anabaena on Azolla

Chlamydomonas (can have two flagella)

Lineage Archaeplastida

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

Volvox

Lineage Archaplasitida

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

Spirogyra (can be dark green or light green)

Lineage Archaeplastida

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae)

Ulva (sea lettuce)

Lineage Archaeplastida

Phylum Chlorophyta

Chondrus (Irish Moss)

Lineage Archaeplastida

Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)

Fucus (Rock weed)

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Orchophyta (brown algae)

Nereocystis (bull kelp)

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Orchophyta (Brown algae)

Diatoms

Lineage Stramenopila

Phylum Orchophyta

Silia cell walls - Diverse shapes

Euglena

Lineage Excavata

Phylum Euglenozoa (Euglenoids)

Paramecium caudatum

Lineage Alveolata

Phylum Ciliophora (ciliate) (grayish flat)

Paramecium bursaria

Lineage Alveolata

Phylum Ciliophora (ciliate) (green and purple bigger)

Chaos

Lineage Amoebozoa

Phylum Amoebozoa