Philosophy Midterm

Ascent of Mount Ventoux

Petrarch’s inward reflection on his climb of the mountain, symbolizing his struggle between worldly pleasures and the blessed life. An early representation of renaissance curiosity, humanism, and individualism also connected to St. Augustin.

Martin Luther

A German monk who started the Protestant Revolution after criticizing indulgences and corruption of Catholic Church which challenged authority. He believed in scripture over all, even translating the Bible into German, then wrote 95 theses but was excommunicated for dividing Western Christianity.

Principia

Major scientific work by Issac Newton that showed universal mathematical laws govern both Earth and heavens, becoming one of the greatest achievements of the Scientific Revolution and strengthened confidence in human reason.

The Preamble

Opening of the U.S Constitution that expressed popular sovereignty and “We the People” are the source of legitimate political authority. The people establish government to accomplish specific purposes like justice, common defense, liberty, and security.

Discourses on Livy

Written by Machiavelli as he uses the Roman Republic to argue that strong institutions, civic participation, and even political conflict can preserve and even strengthen liberty. Politics should be based on how humans actually behave, not unrealistic ideals

Roman Republic

Ancient republican government admired by Machiavelli that divided political power among institutions rather than a single ruler turning class conflict into political protections. It acted as a model of shared power, showing successful republics don’t need to eliminate conflict but channel it productively.

Issac Newton

English mathematician and physicist who was a key figure to the Scientific Revolution. He discovered the 3 laws of motion, universal gravitation, and that nature appears orderly and predictable. His success gave confidence in human reason, and the same reason could be applied politically.

Cesare Borgia

Italian military and political leader who represents Machiavelli’s idea of virtu with political skill, decisiveness, and strategic use of cruelty. His eventual failure also demonstrates fortuna as not even the most skilled rulers can completely control unpredictable circumstances.

Avignon Papacy

The period of time from 1307-1377 when the popes lived in Avignon, France instead of Rome. It weakened the Catholic Church’s authority by making it appear political, wealthy, and dependent on French influence which contributed to a larger Church crisis and the calls for reform before the Protestant Reformation .

Pico della Mirandola

Italian Renaissance humanist who argued that humans are unique because they have the freedom to determine what they become. Humans can degrade themselves toward animalistic behaviors or elevate themselves towards reason and intellectual development concluding that human dignity comes from free will and potential.

Declaration of Independence

A formal proclamation that argues humans possess natural rights and the purpose of the government is to protect those rights. Legitimate political authority comes from the consent of those being governed and if rights are violated, the people can alter or abolish the government.

Joan of Arc

Young French woman who became an important religious and military figure during the Hundred Years’ War between France and England. She represents the connection between religious faith, political power, and growing national identity. Though convicted of heresy and killed, her divine claims to save France helped strengthen the monarchy and unite under King Charles VII.

St. Augustin

An early Christian philosopher and theologian who became one of the most influential thinkers of Christianity, arguing that humans are sinful and true fulfillment only comes from God. He emphasizes turning inward and examining the soul before getting distracted by the outside, overall greatly shaping medieval Christian ideas about human nature.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments to the Constitution that protects individual liberties by limiting government power, reflecting the belief that even legitimate government created by the people can threaten freedom and needs constitutional restrictions to ensure liberty.

Renaissance Art

Artistic development shift that stylistically reflected humanism through realism, attention to anatomy, individuality, perspective, revival of Greek/Roman culture, and more. Includes artists like Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. It didn’t abandon Christianity but instead showed religious subjects in a more human centered perspective.

Rene Descartes

A French philosopher and mathematician associated with rationalism and methodological doubts, using the latter to find certain knowledge and concluding “I think, therefore I am”. He represents rationalism as he makes individual reason and deduction the foundation of knowledge.

Humanism

Renaissance movement that shifted intellectual life from medieval theology towards the study of human nature, politics, history, art, and individual achievement. Emphasized Ad Fontes, “back to the sources”, wanting to return to original Greek and Roman works, overall asking what can human beings accomplish?

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer and physicist who used observation, his telescope, and mathematics to challenge traditional ideas about the universe. Pushed for heliocentrism over Earth-centered theories which brought conflict but represented the Scientific Revolution’s growing challenge against inherited intellectual authority.

Leviathan

Political philosophy work by Thomas Hobbes that aims to explain why a monarchy is legitimate. He argued that without government, humans “state of nature” would mean danger and disorder, so rational people create a social contract with a strong sovereign in political control in exchange for maintaining peace and security.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher important to the development of empiricism and modern scientific thinking like the scientific method. Argued that instead of trusting traditional authorities, knowledge should be built around observation, experimentation, and systematic evidence. He also added that humans have biases and assumptions known as “The Idols” which could further distort thinking.