APUSH study terms

Great Depression

The severe, decade-long global economic collapse lasting from 1929 through the 1930s, characterized by massive unemployment, bank failures, and widespread poverty.

Wall Street / Stock Market

The financial center where shares of public companies are traded; its 1929 collapse triggered the onset of the Great Depression.

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

The catastrophic day the U.S. stock market crashed after millions of shares were sold in a panic, wiping out billions of dollars in wealth.

Dow Jones Index

The primary market indicator tracking major U.S. corporate stocks; its rapid collapse signaled the systemic failure of the economy.

Income Distribution (1920s)

The unequal spread of wealth across American society, heavily concentrated at the top, leaving average consumers unable to sustain economic growth.

Buying on Margin

The risky practice of purchasing stocks with borrowed money, often paying as little as 10% down, which bankrupted investors and lenders when prices plunged.

Gross National Product (GNP)

The total value of all goods and services produced by a nation in a year; it dropped by nearly 50% during the early years of the Great Depression.

Herbert Hoover

The 31st U.S. President whose reliance on traditional private enterprise, voluntary cooperation, and balanced budgets proved inadequate to combat the economic collapse.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

A high protective tariff passed under Hoover that backfired by triggering retaliatory tariffs worldwide, virtually halting international trade.

Debt Moratorium (1931)

Hoover's temporary suspension of international war debt payments, designed to prevent a total collapse of European economies.

Federal Farm Board

An agency created under Hoover to purchase surplus agricultural commodities to stabilize crop prices, though it lacked sufficient funding.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

A 1932 government agency created under Hoover to provide emergency federal loans to banks, railroads, and major corporations to stimulate the economy.

Bonus March (1932)

An encampment of 20,000 WWI veterans in Washington, D.C., demanding early payment of their military pensions, forcibly dispersed with tear gas and troops.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)

The 32nd U.S. President who promised a New Deal for the 'forgotten man,' restoring public confidence and greatly expanding executive power.

Twentieth Amendment

The 1933 'Lame-Duck' amendment that shortened the interval between elections and inaugurations by moving Inauguration Day to January 20.

First New Deal (1933–1934)

The initial legislative wave focused primarily on immediate economic relief, banking stabilization, and emergency structural reforms.

The Three Rs

FDR's core policy framework: Relief (immediate aid for the needy), Recovery (rebuilding industry and farming), and Reform (permanent economic fixes).

Brain Trust

A small group of reform-minded college professors and economists who advised FDR and helped draft early New Deal programs.

Frances Perkins

Secretary of Labor under FDR and the first woman appointed to a U.S. Cabinet position.

The Hundred Days (1933)

An unprecedented emergency session of Congress during which FDR passed dozens of major New Deal recovery and relief laws.

Emergency Bank Holiday

An executive action closing all U.S. banks on March 6, 1933, allowing federal inspectors to confirm financial solvency before reopening.

Twenty-First Amendment

The 1933 constitutional amendment repealing Prohibition, designed to generate federal tax revenues and stimulate business activity.

Fireside Chats

FDR's informal radio broadcasts directly to millions of Americans, designed to restore public faith in banks and government measures.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

A federal agency created by the Glass-Steagall Act in 1933 to insure individual bank deposits and prevent catastrophic bank runs.

Public Works Administration (PWA)

A New Deal agency headed by Harold Ickes that spent billions of dollars employing workers on large-scale infrastructure projects like dams, bridges, and highways.

Harold Ickes

Secretary of the Interior under FDR who managed the Public Works Administration with a focus on high-quality, permanent public infrastructure.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

A popular New Deal relief program that employed young men in outdoor conservation projects, requiring the majority of wages to be sent back to their families.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

A 1933 federal agency that constructed dams along the Tennessee River to control floods, curb soil erosion, and supply cheap electricity to a poor rural region.

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

An agency that brought business and labor together to establish fair competition codes, wages, and hours, symbolized by the Blue Eagle emblem.

Schechter v. United States (1935)

The 'Sick Chicken' Supreme Court case that invalidated the NRA by declaring that Congress could not unconstitutionally delegate legislative powers to the President.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

A federal watchdog established in 1934 to regulate stock markets, enforce financial disclosure, and protect investors from insider trading and fraud.

Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

A 1934 government agency created to revive the construction industry by insuring private bank loans for home mortgages and repairs.

Second New Deal (1935–1938)

FDR's second wave of legislation, prioritizing permanent social reform, direct employment, labor rights, and institutional safety nets.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

A major relief agency headed by Harry Hopkins that employed millions on infrastructure projects and funded artists, actors, and writers.

Harry Hopkins

FDR's close advisor and principal relief administrator who led the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and the Works Progress Administration.

National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935)

A landmark law guaranteeing workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively while establishing a dedicated board to enforce fair labor practices.

Social Security Act (1935)

A cornerstone New Deal program providing federal-state unemployment insurance, disability aid, and retirement pensions funded by payroll taxes.

Father Charles Coughlin

A prominent Catholic radio priest whose massive broadcasts turned aggressively against FDR, taking on anti-Semitic and fascist undertones.

Francis Townsend

A California doctor whose plan to give $200 per month to citizens over age 60 gained national traction and spurred the passage of Social Security.

Huey Long

Louisiana Senator who opposed FDR from the political left, promoting the 'Share Our Wealth' program to redistribute fortunes by heavily taxing the rich.

Court-Packing Plan (1937)

FDR's controversial proposal to add extra justices to the Supreme Court for every member over age 70, which was widely rejected as an attack on judicial independence.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

A labor federation formed to organize industrial laborers regardless of skill level across manufacturing sectors such as steel, automotive, and textiles.

John L. Lewis

President of the United Mine Workers who established the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) to advocate for unskilled industrial workers.

Sit-Down Strike

A labor tactic where workers refuse to work while occupying factory spaces, preventing companies from bringing in replacement workers.

Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

Federal legislation establishing a national minimum wage, a 40-hour maximum workweek, and restrictions on child labor in interstate commerce.

New Deal Coalition

A powerful political alliance forged under FDR that brought together labor unions, urban workers, African Americans, Catholics, Jews, and Southern Democrats.

Keynesian Economics

The economic theory asserting that deliberate government deficit spending during downturns is necessary to stimulate consumer demand and economic recovery.

Depression Mentality

The enduring psychological trauma experienced by millions during the 1930s, instilling lifelong habits of extreme frugality and financial caution.

Dust Bowl

The severe ecological crisis across the Great Plains caused by drought and overfarming, displacing hundreds of thousands of farming families.

The Grapes of Wrath

John Steinbeck's 1939 novel chronicling the hardships, migration, and exploitation experienced by Dust Bowl refugees traveling to California.

Marian Anderson (1939 Lincoln Memorial Concert)

The world-renowned Black contralto who performed on the Lincoln Memorial steps on Easter Sunday after being denied Constitution Hall due to racial discrimination.

Mary McLeod Bethune

Educator and civil rights leader who directed Minority Affairs in the National Youth Administration and led FDR's informal 'Black Cabinet.'

Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC)

A federal body established in 1941 to investigate and prohibit racial discrimination in defense industries under Executive Order 8802.

A. Philip Randolph

President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters who successfully pressured FDR to desegregate defense employment by threatening a massive march on Washington.

Indian Reorganization (Wheeler-Howard) Act (1934)

Legislation that ended the allotment policies of the Dawes Act, returned unsold land to tribal control, and encouraged Native American self-governance.

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

The catastrophic day the U.S. stock market crashed after panic selling wiped out billions of dollars in wealth.

Buying on Margin

The practice of purchasing stocks with borrowed money (often paying only 10% down), which led to massive financial collapse when market prices plummeted.

Bonus March (1932)

A gathering where 20,000 WWI veterans camped in Washington, D.C., demanding immediate cash redemption of their service certificates, only to be forcibly dispersed by the military.

Twentieth Amendment

The 1933 'Lame-Duck' amendment that shortened the interval between national elections and presidential inaugurations by shifting Inauguration Day to January 20.

Emergency Bank Holiday (1933)

A temporary nationwide closure of financial institutions initiated on March 6, 1933, allowing federal auditors to confirm stability before reopening.

Fireside Chats

A series of informal radio broadcasts by FDR aimed at restoring citizen trust in banks and federal economic programs.

The Three Rs

FDR's governing strategy focusing on immediate aid for the impoverished (Relief), rebooting the economy (Recovery), and structural fixes to prevent future depressions (Reform).

Brain Trust

A select group of reform-minded university professors and specialists who advised FDR and drafted early New Deal statutes.

Emergency Banking Act (1933)

Federal legislation permitting the Treasury Department to evaluate the financial condition of closed banks prior to authorizing their reopening.

Beer-Wine Revenue Act (1933)

Legislation that modified the Volstead Act to legalize beverages with 3.2% alcohol, raising tax revenue and generating jobs prior to the 21st Amendment.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

A public work relief program that employed young men in manual labor projects including reforestation, dam construction, and state park development.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

An agency headed by Harry Hopkins that disbursed approximately $3 billion in direct cash grants to state and municipal relief agencies.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)

A farm relief measure that offered government subsidies in exchange for reducing cultivated acreage and livestock, aiming to raise crop values through artificial scarcity.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

A federally owned corporation created to provide regional flood control, navigation assistance, and cheap hydroelectricity along an impoverished river basin.

Glass-Steagall Act (1933)

A banking law that strictly separated commercial from investment banking and created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to protect depositors.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

A government corporation that guaranteed individual savings accounts initially up to $5,000 to prevent bank runs and restore trust.

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

A New Deal agency symbolized by the Blue Eagle that established codes of fair competition regulating wages, work hours, and collective bargaining rights.

Public Works Administration (PWA)

A recovery agency administered by Harold Ickes that spent over $4 billion funding large-scale infrastructure projects like bridges, schools, and the Grand Coulee Dam.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

An independent regulatory commission established in 1934 to supervise investment markets, mandate public disclosures, and prevent stock manipulation.

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

A law championed by John Collier that replaced the allotment policies of the Dawes Act, preserved tribal lands, and restored self-governing autonomy to Native American tribes.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

A relief agency directed by Harry Hopkins that spent $11 billion employing millions on public construction works and cultural projects for artists and writers.

National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935)

A foundational statute known as the 'Magna Carta of Labor' that protected the right of private sector employees to unionize and establish collective bargaining units via the NLRB.

Social Security Act (1935)

Legislation creating a permanent safety net consisting of old-age retirement benefits, joint federal-state unemployment compensation, and assistance for disabled individuals.

Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

A labor law that established a national statutory minimum wage, capped standard weekly work at 40 hours, and prohibited oppressive child labor in interstate commerce.

Frances Perkins

FDR's Secretary of Labor and the first female Cabinet secretary in United States history.

Mary McLeod Bethune

Educator and civil rights leader who headed the Division of Negro Affairs in the National Youth Administration and directed FDR's unofficial 'Black Cabinet.'

Father Charles Coughlin

A Catholic priest with a nationwide weekly radio audience of 40 million whose sermons shifted from New Deal support to reactionary, fascist, and anti-Semitic attacks.

Huey Long

The Louisiana Senator who criticized the New Deal from the political left, proposing his 'Share Our Wealth' plan to confiscate large fortunes and guarantee every family an annual stipend.

Keynesian Economics

An economic doctrine advocating deliberate state deficit spending and monetary stimulus during downturns to prime consumer demand and accelerate private business activity.

Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935)

The landmark Supreme Court ruling that struck down the National Recovery Administration on the basis that Congress had unconstitutionally delegated legislative authority to the executive branch.

Court-Packing Plan (1937)

FDR's controversial proposal to appoint an additional Supreme Court justice for each sitting member over 70 years of age, widely condemned as an infringement on judicial independence.

Owen J. Roberts ('Switch in Time')

The Supreme Court associate justice whose unexpected vote to uphold progressive state and federal economic statutes in 1937 helped undermine the court-packing bill.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

A labor federation founded by John L. Lewis to organize all workers within mass-production industries regardless of craft specialization, race, or sex.

Flint GM Sit-Down Strike (1936–1937)

A successful labor action in which autoworkers occupied production plants to prevent strikebreakers from operating assembly lines, securing union recognition from General Motors.

Memorial Day Massacre (1937)

A deadly incident in Chicago in which municipal police officers opened fire on an assembly of striking steelworkers and their supporters outside Republic Steel, killing 10 people.

Groups excluded from original Social Security and FLSA protections

Agricultural laborers and domestic household employees, a statutory carve-out that disproportionately excluded Black, Hispanic, and female workers.

The Dust Bowl and 'Okies'

A severe environmental disaster caused by severe drought and excessive plowing that stripped Great Plains topsoil, forcing hundreds of thousands of dispossessed farm families to migrate west.

The Grapes of Wrath (1939)

John Steinbeck's novel detailing the arduous journey, systemic poverty, and social hostility endured by displaced Oklahoma tenant farmers migrating to California.

Primary factor ending the Great Depression

The massive government mobilization, full-scale deficit spending, and production demands generated by entry into World War II.