PNB exam 3

nervous system consists of 2 major parts what are they

what is the first part made out of

what is the second part made out of

CNS/central nervous system

-brain and spinal cord

PNS

all other nervous tissue (spinal and cranial nerves ganglia)

extra: 97 percent of nervous tissue is in the brain and 3 percent is in the spinal cord

what groups of neuronal cells exist in the Central nervous System

the central nervous system has what kind of matter

what are in the bundles of axons for the central nervous system

white matters consists of what of the cell body in CNS

neural cell bodies

nuclei(neurons) /grey matter

part of the white matter-called tracts or fibers

axons

extra: neurons=grey matter

in the peripheral nervous system/PNS what are the groups of neuronal cell bodies

bundles of axons in PNS are

ganglia

nerves coming off the spinal cord or cranial nerves coming off of cranium

extra: dorasal root ganglia, ont he side of the spinal chord, consists of the cell bodies of the sensory neurons

white matter in bottom left, the rest is grey matter

major cell types in CNS pt 1

name all 5 of them

what does the first one do

what 4 things make up glial cells

what are astrocytes , what do they support, what do they create, waht two other things do they do ,

neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells

neurons-receiving, processing, integrating and transmitting signals between cells

astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells

nerve cells, blood brain barrier, ion homeostasis, synaptic formation

extra: Astrocytes=glial cells

what are microglia

they have blank functions, they are also activated in blank or blank, and they recast lot’s of blank factors in the enviro

what is the main function of onigodendoctyes

what is the function of ependymal cells: these are cells that blank blank, and are improtant for blank

macrophages of the brain

protective, inflammation or injury, toxin

production of the myelin sheath around axons

line ventricles, CSF(cerebrospinal fluid)

what is the protection that is most outwards of the brain called

under skin what comes next that is good protection of the brain

the brain has how many meninges , also what are they also called

dura matter: what is it closest to, describe it’s thini/thickness

what is the layer after dura matter called, describe it’s structure

what layer comes after this one/is also close to grey matter of the brain, is it thick or thin

skin

cranial bones(flat bones)

3-(connective tissue)

the bone, thickest membrane

arachnid-more mesh like

Pia matter-thin matter

extra: 7 mm thick

the subarachnoid space is the space between what two structures

what does it contain what does this thin provide

what does this thing also do

space between arachnoid and Pia matter

cerebrospinal fluid

additional protection of the brain from crashing toward the cranial bone

decrease weight of the brain

extra: (brain is inside of the skull, swimming in CSF, )

extra: if not in cerebral spinal fluid, is much bigger weight

brain Meningie:

match these

dura matter, arachnoid, and Pia matter

with thin fibrous and filamentous men, thick fibrous, and thin fibrous

where do you find most blood vessels (of the 3 meninges)

brain Meningie

dura: mater: thick fibrous

arachnoid: thin fibrous and filamentous mesh)

pia mater: thin fibrous

in arachnid and Pia though

extra:

pia=only microscopically seen, sometimes can’t distringioush arachnoid and Pia mater

big mesh of blood supply and blood vessels in dura ,

diseases which can be caused by infection of meninges

what is bacterial meningitis caused by

what is viral meningitis caused by , is it more or less serious than bacterial meningitis

what can also cause meningitis

bacterial infection, can cause stroke, hearing loss, permanent brain damage, early treatment of this involves antibiotics, which are important to be admitted as soon as possible can cross blood brain barrier and decrease the symptoms of the disease

enteroviruses, less serious

final infections

left and right side of brain

top of the brain-protection of skin, then bone

what is dipole

dipole has 3 layers, what are the 2 layers made out of, what is the one layer made out of

what is the thickest membrane out of the 3 meningitis

where does CSF circulate, where is it drained

bone/scalp obones=flat bones

2 compact bone, 1 spongy bone

dura mater-thickest membrane

subarachnoid space, superior sagittal sinus

cerebrospinal fluid is produced by what two things

what is the main function of the cerebrospinal fluid

out of the two, which one produces most of the CSF

what are ependymal cells contained in/

the choroid plexus (here in red)+ eppendymal cells

to support the brain

ependymal cells(they make the choroid plexus)

(here in purple)

the choroid plexus (in the ventricles)

extra: and average brain is between 1400-1600 grams, suspended in cerebral spinal fluid but when it’s suspended in cerebral spinal fluid, it’s 60 grams on the body

what are capillaries lined with

what wraps around endothelial cells, what layer is then outside of the one wrapped around them

out of CSF and plasma which one is more diluted/has more water

what are the ONLY two things that CSF has more than plasma of

what is the one thing that CSF and plasma have equal parts of

why is it good that CSF has less protein concentration than plasma /is a good thing

endothelial cells,pericytes, then ependymal cells

in CSF

CSF

water, sodium and chloride-for excitability of cells

osmolarity

bc it decreases the ability of infections and proliferation of microorganisms in cerebrospinal fluid

another 20 percent of CSF is not produced by choroid plexus, it is produced by blank blank blank

what is it

CSF flows through the subarachnoid space of the brain AND blank blank

when it is produced in the choroid plexus, it is released from the blank blank to the blank blank, then the blank blank to the blank blank. it passes through the blank blank of the blank blank then it will be reabsorbed in the blank blank sinus

superior sagital spines-have specific blank blank which allows it do do what

brain interstitial system

fluid filled space between neurons and capillaries

spinal cord

lateral ventricle, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, 4th ventricle,, subarachnoid space, spinal cord superior sagittal

arachnoid vili, reabsorb CSF and drain them in the dural venous sinuses

cerebrospinal fluid= is a blank source of different diseases by lumbar puncture in the blank spinal chord

the lumbar spinal chord does not contain what , what does it contain -what is it called

majority of CSF is produced where, some is also where

diagnostic, lumbar

spinal chord, spinal nerves called-a caudal equina

in the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle, 4th ventricle

extra:

take sample of CSF, analyze for cell count, glucose level, protein level, can detect some other features like oligoclonal bands-useful for diagnostic purposes of multiple sclerosis,

can detect other diseases like meningitis neurosyphilis and encephalitis-IS improtant

why is the blood brain barrier improtant

what is one of the cells that form blood brain barrier/BBB

astrocytes have special blank, wehre, what are they called

what do they do

capillaries have blank cells, what kind of junctions , what does this prevent

what is the second cell that is a key part of the blood brain barrier

what 3 things makes up the neuromuscular unit

-protection against pathogen

astrocytes

feets on end of processes called astrocyte foot processes

firmly attached to capillaries present in the brain

capillaries have endothelial cells, tight junctions, prevent paracellular transport

pericytes

pericytes, capillary endothelium and astrocytes

extra: tight junctions=v tightly bond between each other, entry of diff toxins across cells

blank blank =v improtant part of neruomusclar unit due to complex blank blank, which prevent/control blank blank (keep toxins out of body)

in order to pass the BBB, you have to be blank, blank molecules or have specific blank to pass through

BBB enables a low blank enviro to prevent blank like microorganisms

endothelial cells, tight junction, molecular traffic,

small, lipophilic, transporters

low protein, proliferation

for brain to function we need what molecule

which molecule passes freely across BBB

what is one of the metabolic needs of the brain for energy source:

there is a high concentration of glucose in the plasma and brain will consume that glucose and abt how much of the bodies glucose is consumed by the brain

oxygen

oxygen

glucose,

half/a lot!

extra: brain receives around 15 percent of the blood pumped by the heart at res

what moves glucose from the plasma into the brain interstitial fluid and enable energy

what is progressive hypoglycemia

membrane transporters

low concentration gf glucose in the blood

extra: causes-confusion,unconsciousness and death)

blood supply of brain

main blood supply of brain = is what

from aorta, to the front of brain anterior, we have blank blank blank

which branch into external and internal carotid arteries

which ones passes into the brain and branch to several blood vessels in the brain

the internal carotid arteries give rise to the blank and blank arteries

aorta

common carotid arteries, carotid artery

and internal carotid artery

anterior, cerebral

vertebral arteries supply what part of the Brian

what does it supply to that part of the brain

what is the circle of wills

what do they prevent the loss of

if there is occlusion of one part of the blood supply, what happens

back of brain (they’re posterior)

oxygen

circular arrangement of the anterior and posterior blood vessels

functions

alternative root supply can provide oxygen to that effected brain

extra: they supply the brain /brain stem and some cerebellum and some of the posterior structures of the bran and occipital lobe of the Brian

blood =returned by venous system, by the …

internal jugular vein exits through the blank blank of the blank bone

to return the blood to the arterial system

main artery=jugular vain

jugular foramen , occipital

cerebrum:

fifth lobe deep buried below frontal, temporal and parietal lobe is called what

what is the cerebrum important for

what is diencephalon important for

the brainstem consists of what three things

what is the brainstem important for

cerebellum is important for what

cerebrum:

insulin

higher brain functions

homeostatic controls

midbrain pons and medulla,

autonomic reflex center-most functions for survival=contorlled by Brains stem

cerebellum=coordination of movement

main landmarks of cerebellum

posterior view=left

longitudinal fissure divides what

transverse fissure divides what two structures

lateral fissure divides the lobes such as

the central sulcus divides what two lobes

the motor cortex is in front of what structure

behind the central sulcus you have what cortex

left and right hemispheres

divides cerebrum and cerebellum

frontal, partietal/temporal lobe

frontal from parietal love

the central sulcus

the somatosensory cortex

5 lobes of cerebrum

there is contralateral control: left cerebrum controls what side of the body and right cerebrum controls what side of the body

frontal cortex: below the frontal bone in the skull in the left hemisphere: it is a place where there is a blank blank

what main 4 things is it improtant for

5 lobes of cerebrum

right side of the body , the left side of the body

motor cortex (in precentral gyrus)

improtant for speech, memory, personality, and emotion

2nd lobe

parietal cortex/lobe

it is the blank cortex

it’s positioned where in comparison to the central sulcus/central gyrus

the occipital lobe has what cortex, it is important for blank processing and storing blank blank

somatosensory

posteriorly

occipital cortex- has visual cortex

visual , visual memories

the temporal lobe is important for what 4 things

the fifth lobe/insulin (a separate lobe) when you cut parts of frontal, parietal, and temporal loves, there is insula (island)

what is insula improtant for control of(4 things)

it is also improtant for processing info of the sensation of waht two things

hearing, speech, language, and smell

blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, vital autonomic nervous system

smell and taste

cortex in cerebrum is organized in horizontal layers

left side=sagital view of cortex: diff complexity of cortex I diff regions of cerebrum

left=front, right=back in blue

what three structures make up the neocortex

how many layers do those areas have of the cell

what is the pyriform cortex important for sensation of , how many layers does it have , what is it called

parietal cortex and visual cortex, motor cortex

6

smell, 3, paleocortex

looking ont he RIGHT

the first layer: compare the levels of cells it has

the second and third layer are improtant for blank between blanks and blank areas

layer 4 does what, which one sends lot’s of info to this layer

layers 5 and 6 are responsible for what

waht are the 3 subcortical structure

sparse with cell

communication, hemispheres, cortical

receives info form other cortical areas ,thalamus

sending info from cortex to other subcortical structure like

striatum brainstem, and thalamus

3 major planes of sectioning: name them

frontal/coronal divides brain into what regions

transvere/horiontla divides brain into what two regions

lateral/sagital plane divides brain into what regions

coronal plane, horizontal plan, sagittal view

front/anterior and back posterior (occipital is back in coronal)

upper/superior and lower inferior

left and right regions

grey matter is what

grey matter has a blank appearance with cell bodies around the blank

dark/grey matter/basal ganglia nuclei have what level of cell bodies, it is where

cell bodies of the neurons

darke, cerebrum

a lot of cell bodies, deep inside hemisphere, (not in the top)

white matter

white matter consists of what , coming out of what

how many major white matter bundles and fibers do we have coming from the cerebral cortex and cerebrum and out to sub cortical regions OR fibers that connect different sides of the hemisphere

what are the names of the 3 fibers

what do the CF do

PF: are bundles of fibers close to blank blank. they are fibers that connect blank to other regions like blank regions

AF: define it

axonal fibers coming out of the cell body of the neurons

commissural fibers, projection fibers , and association fibers

connect the left and right hemispheres

basal ganglia, cerebrum, subcortical

connections within cerebral hemisphere (adjacent gyro too)

subcortical regions liek: Brain stem, spinal cord, the end

Geri: ridges or bumps

the brain has some or lots of them

the brain has few or many folds

what is the advantage of folds, what does it increase

what does an increase of this also cause

this also contributes to more blank control of the sensory motor system and more blank synaptic blank

has lots of ridges/gyri

convoluted, has lot’s of folds

surface area of the cortex, convoluted

more connections,

specific , neuronal , connections

extra: gyrus=singular , gyri=plural, grooves+sulci or sulcus singular-gives Brian cauliflower look

human cortex=highly convoluted to other animals

what is the EQ/encephalization cquotient used to compare

the actual size of the brain to the expected brain size of that specific body weight

extra:

ex: human have the highest EQ of any animals, Brian is much larger than expected for mammal of our size

if compare diff neuronal density in diff regions, find conclusions cool

cerebellum makes up what percent of the brain mass, but consists of what percent of the brain neurons, this area is also highly blank, and increase in surface area

cerebral cortex makes up what percentage of brain mass, but has what percentage of brain regions,

what structure has the highest number of neurons/hghest percentage of neurons

what structure of the brain has highest brain mass

ten percent , 80 percent, convoluted

80 percent , 19 percent

cerebellum

cerebral cortex

with maturation, we have Increased blank in human brain

we are born with certain number of neurons, does it change /increase as we age

as we age, we gain more blank between neurons

connectivity

no

connectivity

frontal lobe of cerebrum/cortex is important for what 3 things

frontal love also contains what cortex, what’s it important for

this cortex plays an important role in what two things

hypothesis generation

planning/organizing strategy

personality

motor cortex imprint for motor control

interpersonali social skills, higher level of intelligence

frontal lobe is part of the lateral view

(motor cortex is in front of central sulcus in blank gyrus)

by stimulating this region, your body will move in that particular part, if region is controlling hand, muscles of which hand will move

left cortex has what , what is it important for, injury of it causes a disease known as what, it’s improtant for what

in the top frontal lobe in the inferior part, you have what structure, what is it important for

prefrontal

the hand on the opposite side of the brain that’s being stimulated

Broca’s area, speech control, aphasia + speech

olfactory bulb, odor perception

extra: olfactory buble is not that prominent for humans

but sheep depending on smell for surviival, there’s is larger

parietal in green

central slices, parietal lobe is improtant for what two things

it’s also important for what two things

what is the dark green structure called

the frontal lobe contains what cortex

in the parietal lobe (posterior part) we have what cortex

what is it improtant for processing

sensation and sensory integration

• spacial awareness and perception

primary somatosensory cortex

the motor cortex

somatosensory association cortex, for processing sensory information

extra:

if you receive stimulation on certain body parts, will have or can have high activity of neurons in the somatosensory cortex in opposite side

somatotopic organization of our body

there are cartoons called motor and sensory homunculus

in the middle homunculus looks like small body with huge hands, huge lips, huge hands but small trunks and small legs

the cortex area for processing sensation and controlling movement is equal or not equal across body parts?

what 3 body parts get large areas?

what does contralateral representation mean

not equal

hands, face, and lips

the right cortex receives insinuation from the left side of the body and the left motor cortex controls movement on the right side

temporal lobe is divided by central sulcus from frontal and parietal lobe

temporal lobe contains what cortex , what is it improtant for

the left hemisphere of the temporal lobe-superior temporal gyrus has what area,

what is it important for

what happens if you have damage here, you will be able to do what, but language won’t have what

the temporal lobe also have blank formation and blank retrieval in blank

the hippocampus area is apart of what cortex, and it’s where

auditory cortex, hearing

Wernickes area

language comprehension, speak (no motor impairment), appropriate meaning

memory memory retrieval, hippocampus

limbic cortex, deep in the emporal lobe

image shows location of primary cortex

and association cortex

image shows location of primary cortex

and association cortex

have wernickes area in that area-language comprehension in the left hemisphere

location of braces and wernickes area

brocas area also is the blank blank speech area

what happens if you damage brooks area , what does it affect

having a stroke or damage to wernickes area effects what 2 things

these tw areas are blank via arcuate fascicles

association fibers are connected in….

expressive motor speech area

- expressing language, face will have trouble expressing

understanding language and producing meaningful language

connected, (example of association fibers,)

diff areas of 1 side , both left temporal

occipital lobe does what

what cortex is present here -what does it do, through what

processing, integration, interpretation of vision and visual stimuli

secondary /association visual cortex: processing, interpreting info, the primary visual cortex

primary visual cortex : will achieve info coming from the…

all the interpretation of visual info goes through what

eyes and visual pathways and then form two dimensional sketch of the subject

the secondary or visual association area

insula: fifth lobe

has different and how many separations f anterior and posterior

what is the fifth lobe involved in

what is it’s functions 5 tings

it’s a complex function-it receives what

blank and two different ones

consciousness, role in emotions, interoceptions of receptive info from internal organs, regulation of the body homeostasis,

functions: compassion, empathy processing of sensation taste, smell, awareness of hunger, pain, fatigue,

info coming from diff parts of the brain

connect superior, posterior, inferior, and anterior to how it’s translated when talking about the brain

translate this to when you’re talking abt the brainstem and cerebellum

ex: posterior cortex is superior to corpus collosum

repeat for brainstorm and cerebellum

brainstem and cerebellum: diff terminology

rostra, dorsal, ventral, caudal

cerebellum is dorsal to the brainstem

midstram is rostral to the pons

pons is rostral to medulla

the basal nuclei is considered what

they are groups of blank blank deep inside the blank blank

what are the 3 major parts of basal nuclei

what 4 things ar ether important for

the main parts function in what

what two things does the basal nuclei work with

deep grey matter/grey matter

cell bodies, cerebral hemispheres

caudate nucleus, putamen, globes pallidus

motor control, mood, some control of emotions, semi automatic motions and sub conscious control

modulating(regulating) motor movements

pre central gyrus and cerebellum

what are the 3 major regions of diencephalon

which one is called the pineal gland

which is the biggest part

epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus

epithalamus(pineal gland) -posterior/superiorr

thalamus(biggest part) and superior

hyptohalamus-infreior/anterior

extra:

sagittal view of brain

what is the epithalamus important for

secretion of melatonin (hormone that helps regulate day night cycles, circadian rhythm)

jet lag-melatonin helps to overcome that problem

extra: eptihalamus: -highlighted in red (sagiral view of brain)-in middle of cerebrum

the central part of diencephalon-biggest Parth is known as what

it has a lot of what , why?

v complex structure, many diff types of blank , important for processing of blank and blank info and higher blank as well

between left and right thalamus what do we have

thalamus

routes- so the sensory and motor signals can get to the rest of the brain neurons, sensory, motor, functions between left and right

third ventricle

Extra

thalamus is also called the /switchboard or relay station

another region of the diencephalon is called the hypothalamus

it’s inferior to the thalamus and anterior to the epithalamus

hypothalamus has complex functions, it regulates many blank mechanisms , it’s the master control of the blank blank blank

also the master control of what system, connected to what

what 4 things does the hypothalamus also do

another region of diencephalon is hypothalamus

homeostatic, autonomic nerves system(regulation of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system)

endocrine system, pituitary gland (both anterior or posterior)

regulation of body temp, control of emotional behavior, food and water intake, regulation of sleep wake circadian rhythms

hypothalamus has has neurons that regulate the control of the endocrine system through anterior pituitary gland

the brainstem is a biridrectonal passageway for what two things extending to cerebrum and spinal chord

what are the 3major parts of the brainstem

what is highly enlarged in humans

brainstem, important for survival has blank centers, blank center, blank center, and what sensors

sensory and motor tract,

midbrain, pons, medulla /medulla obligata

pons

autonomic, reflex, cardiac, respiratory

extra: midbrain: the most rostral(mesencephalon)

midbrain/mesencephalon two bumps on the posterior side of the midbrain are known as what

Sc is important for what

IC is improtant for what

on the ventral side, there are cerebral peduncles which are…

the superior and inferior colliculi are called what, why

superior and inferior colliculi

improtant for visual reflexes

auditory reflexes

motor pathways that contain fibers coming from the motor cortex and going from motor cortex to spinal chord -descending motor information

corpora qudrigemina-4 of them, two on each sides

extra: SC=superior colliculi

dorsal/posteriro view of the midbrain

pons: are blank centers, they have blank blank blank, they also contain what -what is this important for

the medulla is improtant for the regulation of what two things , what does the medusa have a lot of 2 things

there are cranial nerves coming out of the junction between blank and blank /also where a majority of the cranial nerves are

respiratory, cranial nerve nuclei, trigeminal nucleus-sensation and motor control of the face

cardiovascular and respiratory, cranial nuclei+ pyramids

pons and medulla

medulla is the formation of pyramids -pyrimidal system: system that contains axonal fibers that contain motor information and motor control

they make the two bumps pry maids in medulla

cerebellum

small brain

found on dorsal part of the brain and brainstem

improtant for adjusting the postural muscles of the body , correcting errors during movement, complex motor learning (like riding a bike)

automating and optimizing behavior, enabling synchronicity and timing of movements (movement are in order and synchronous),

limbic system-emotional brain -localized in many regions of the Brian

strongly related tot he behavior, memory, autonomic nervous system, regulation of hormones, eating habits, processing of smell, other sensory information

major parts of limbic system part 1

amygdala-basal ganglia, anterior part of basal ganglia on inferior and rostral part of basal ganglia is amygdala, process information and helps recognize potnetial threats

hypothalamus-via the pituitary gland to maintain body balance

thalamus: relay station

major parts of the limbic system part 2

cingulate gyrus: above corpus collosum, improtant for behavior responses for perception of pain, regulate emotional processes

basal ganglia: assist with reward processing, habit formation, and movement control

major parts of the limbic system

olfactory bulb: processes smell information and links scents directly to emotional memories and reactions

maxillary body and hippocampus: improtant for formation of longterm memory and short term

spinal cord and brain=CNS

grey matter=outside, white matter is inside

spinal cord it’s opposite; whit matter is around and grey matter is inside

greys matter=in forms of Butterly

spinal chord is in vertebral canal , it is protected by vertebra

spinal chord is connected with periphery through spinal nerves

dorsal root, ventral root which makes spinal cord which come into the spinal cord and connect spinal cord to the periphery

spinal cord through periphery send info to the muscles through the motor roots

spinal cord has 31 pairs of the spinal nervous, come out through the adjacent vertebra (intervertebral space) which has exits of the spinal nerves

sens sensory information from he spinal nerve to the central nervous system

butterfly shape of the grey matter,

top=dorsal,(posterior) bottom-ventral(anterior)

grey matter inside that have diff type of neurons

butterfly shape can be classified as dorsal horn vs ventral horn

dorsal horn-have sensory neurons mostly and some interneurons

ventral horns: motor neurons

in certain regions of spinal cord:sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

dorsal root ganglion on the side -the buttons on each side of the spinal cord

root ganglions of the cell bodies of the sensory neurons which send info through the spinal nerve to the spinal cord

ventral root: sends info from the ventral horn to the periphery

besides grey matter we have white matter

white matter consists of the ascending and descending pathway

ascending pathways are the sensory pathways -sensation of touch, proprioception, vibration, pain and temp

descending pathways: the ones in blue on the bottom, go from the brain to the periphery through the ventral root

NEW CHAPTER

the nervous system division consists of sensory receptors, neurons, and the parts of the brain that receive and assign meaning to information

both general sensory and specialized sensory system depend on what

interaction of stimuli with special proteins or receptors on the surface

sensation is due to receptors blank diff stimuli into blank blank that are conducted/transmitted into blank

what is perception

when does perception occur? when sensory info comes to the …..

it requires selective activation to regions of the… blank blank, which does what ….

transducing, nerve impulses, CNS (midbrain/mesencephalon)

assigning meaning to that information within the brain

conscious level in the brain

cerebral cortex, assigns meaning to the stimulus

sensory system contains what major thing

they are blank blank send that info to the brain and parts of the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain) receive an assigned meaning to that info

peripheral nervous system (receptors)

afferent fibers

sensation can be classified as what two things

what are the 4 things that fall in the general sense category

it is sensed by diff recetprpos that are where

what are the 4 factors that fall into special senses

they are processed consciously or unconsciously

general/somatic sense or special senses

touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

inside the skin/muscles

vision, olfaction, hearing, taste/gustation

consciously

extra:

have other stimulus in our bodies processed subosnciously-blood pressure, glucose, osmolarity of body fluids, lung inflation, pHdiff kinds of sensory receptors that are sensoring that info and subosnsciously processing

can classify receptors by the location, 3 of them: what are the 3 of them

what 3 things fall under exteroreceptors

what part of the environment do they sense

what are the two examples of Interoreceptors

what do they sense external or internal enviro of body

interoceptors/proprioreceptors- have which receptors

these receptors are inside the what 3 things

they give us info abt what

exteroceptors, interoceptors, and interoceptors/proprioreceptors

smell, taste, touch

the external enviro

interoreceptors

ex baroreceptors -(blood pressure) and chemoreceptors (o2, Co2, blood level)

internal body receptors/sense inside of the body

-have both receptors

muscles, muscle spindles, or Golgi tendon organs

body position in space and each body part relative to each other

proprioreceptors-example-if you close your eyes and raise your hand without looking at hand you can approach with the other hand that hand

when loosing proprioception: which gives awareness of the body parts and controls what

;;; and position of the muscles to. have what..

without proprioreceptors you can’t have what

the level of stretch of the muscles

coordinated movement without looking at your leg

other classification of receptors is based on type of stimulus or modality

what are the 5 ones that fall into this category

tell me what each of them does

thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, and chemoreceptors

thermoreceptors:; sense changes in temperature

chemoreceptors: respond to specific chemical, ex glucose

mechanoreceptors-detect fluctuations in pressure, gravity, change in volume or shape

nociceptors: receptors that detect pain

photoreceptors: detect light

extra:

thermoreceptors: -can be cooler or warmer temp

same receptors sensing cold temp can be activated by some other stimulus

menthol in mint mint activates the same receptors that detect cold temperatures

each receptor is most sensitive/has a lower threshold to blank type of stimulus

nociceptor will only respond to what stimulus

regardless of how a sensory neuron is stimulated, how many sensory modalities will be recieved

your brain does not care how a nerve is triggered, it only cares about what

one

burning sensation/painful stimulus

only 1!

which nerve sends the message

classification of the receptor by the structure

free nerve endings -ex receptors for what 3 things

these are blank, have receptors that can be activated by blank, where is the stimulus sent

then what happens from here?

encapsulated receptors: what do we have here that’s concentrated? around what

when receive esitmulus, it is sent through where

is sending info faster or slower compared to unmyelinated here , then wehre is the signal sent?

what are two examples of encapsulated

pain, temperature, and smell

to the unmyelnated axon to the cell body,

from cell body to another part of axon that synapses inside of the central nervous system

capsules/concentrated layers of connectied tissue around the enclosed nerve endings

through myelinated axon, info is faster, to central nervous system

pressure and touch

rods and cones-these are specialized receptors where?

give an example here

hair cells; specialized hair cells which has what and what, what does the second thing detect

we have a cell body here, and a blank cell synapse onto what and info is sent along

give two examples for hair cells

in the visual system, sight

small cilia, and protrusion, vibration, have cell body, specialized cell synapse on myelinated axon

hearing and equilibrium

receptor potnetial refers to what

with increase of stimulus intensity, what two things increase as well

what is receptor potnetial

info is sent to the brain in the form of what

increasing stimulus intensity will produce increase of graded potential but it’s not…

graded potential in sensory neuron

response and receptor potential

stimulus intensity(ex how warm the room is or how firm a chair is)

excitatory post synaptic potential

inear increase

amplitude of receptor potnetial correlates to what

the relationship between stimulus intensity and graded potential is blank

receptor potential is graded but long distance transmission requires blank blank

true or false action potential is all or none response, you will have a bigger amplitude of action potential due to more stimulus

stimulus intensity

logarithmic

action potentials

false!you won’t have bigger amplitude of action potential due to more stimulus

how brain sense stronger stimulus

neuron has receptors on it’s membrane Called dendrites, when a stimulus excites them, what do they generate

there is generation of action potential that we can record by electrode where?

while stimulus intensity and receptor potential have a direct relationship, what other potential has a direct relationship with stimulus/increased response and higher frequency with higher stimulus

a stronger stimulus activates more blank including the ones that need more stimulation to fire and together, they make the neuron send action potentials blank blank

receptor potnetial

in the nodes of ranvier on axon hillock

action potential

receptors, more often

extra: stronger stimulus results in 2 things:

higher frequency of action potentials form individual sensory receptors and activates receptors with lower AND higher threshold recruitment

one characteristic of sensory receptor is they have different sensor adaptation

wha tis a rapidly adapting receptor/phasic receptors: (mention what happens with prolonged stimulus)

what are two examples of this

what is slowly adapting receptor/tonic receptors (mention prolonged stimulus)

give two examples

with prolonged stimulus, some of the receptors+ action potential will not respond

ex: meissner’s corpuscles (light touch) receptors, + pacinian (vibration pressure)

with prolonged response, some receptors keep responding for as long as stimulus lasts, receptor potnetial stay s on the whole time, action potentials fire from the start, they become less frequent but never stop

merkel disks (B, tecture, fine touch) like for reading braille

Ruffini (E, grasping objects)

proprioreceptors(sense of position and movement of joints)

why do you need two diff kinds of receptors

bc for some senses you need longer duration of the response (slowly adapting)

each receptor in image=piece of skin, neuron is myelinated axon, and dendrites and somewhere down is the cell body of neuron

axon is branching, has many branched dendrites,

what is receptive field:

what is a sensory unit

the surface of skin that dendrites from one single neuron occupy

Her definition of receptive field- area/region that can be sensed by sensory unit

an axon of the neuron and all receptors on it’s dendrites

receptive fields can be bigger or smaller, depending on size of receptive field, they are able or not able to sense what

what is two point discrimination

receptor fields are evenly or unevenly distributed throughout the body

two point discrimination on smaller or bigger distances:

my definition: the ability of a person to tell that they’re skin is being touched in two diff areas

hers: the ability of a person to discriminate when their skin is being touched at two separate points

if you point the same distance as in the skin, you will sense this as one stimulus not two

unevenly distributed

extra: ex: small receptive fields in the finger tips, if you apply two stimulation with forceps and very small distance between those stimulus will be sent as two separate stipulations

two point discrimination: in forearm, you apply the forceps but you need to apply in much bigger distance to sense two points of stimulation

if you point the same distance as in the skin, you will sense this as one stimulus not two

in diff parts of the body you will have more dense receptors, what’s one example of an area that has more dense receptors , is there a high or low distance needed to sense two point discrimination with dense receptors

in fingers and thumbs and low distance

in the belly, back, thigh, calf, you need the two stimuli in much bigger distances to be sensed as two diff stimuli

image recpresents sensory hommunculus is representation of the display differences in receptor differences in the body

top: superior part of the brain/view

red slip is the somatosensory cortex, if you lay down somatosensory on the side , see body parts represented in cortical area

what two areas have a big representation of surface area/higher /bigger density of receptors

even though these two areas have a bigger density of receptors, they have a blank receptor field

they also occupy a blank surface area in what cortex

face and hands

smaller

bigger, somatosensory cortex

one coding for stimulation-location, fact that receptive fields are overlapped, by applying stimulus on this position f the skin

you can stimulus either one neuron or all 3 neurons depending where you apply stimulus

if you can record stimulus/ only stimulate only B, that means the stimulus is applied to the receptive field or the overlapping receptive field?

if you stimulate the area between those two /shared by two sensory units you will have recording/can record response in which neurons

why is overlapping of receptive field good in case of injury

receptive field of that neuron

both of the neurons

if those neurons get injured there won’t be complete loss of sensation intuit area bc the other neuron will be able to send info form that area to the brain

in the coding there is lateral inhibition

what does lateral inhibition do, what does it sharpen, why?

example is in visual cortex/system

example: when. center cone is activated, horizontal cells (a third cell type) inhibit the neighboring cones around it, which makes the center cone’s response sharper

when an active receptor suppresses it’s neighbors, sharpening the contrast between them so the Brian can tell exactly where the stimulus is

(lateral inhibition in her words: in the pattern of action potentials received by the CNS allowing a finer resolution of stimulus location)

in the case of tactile info and or pain info, if you’re pinning the skull and inducing painful info, that is appleid in the receptive field which is sensed by three diff neurons,

which neuron will send that info to the brain

what is the name of that neuron

meaning that it does what

which will stimulate the secondary neuron to blank blank blank , then only info from that neuron will be sent to blank neurons to blank neuron/ tertiary neuron to the blank.

inhibition oft the lateral neurons will enhance what ? via lateral inhibition

onlythe neuron closest to stimulation

the primary sensory neuron

secretes the highest amt of the neurotransmitter

inhibit adjacent neurons, secondary, third/tertiary, brain

perception of the stimulus B

perception=sensory awareness

what is presynaptic inhibition via axo anoxic synapse

green neuron is receiving action potential and then releasing the the inhibitory neuron transmitter (GABA) in this cases GABA does what

and it’s needed in this yellow neuron to produce neurotransmitter which will be released and then synapse on the post synaptic membrane of the dendrite

in this case, regulate the amt of neuron that is actually part of the mechanism of the what (3 words)

when one axon synapses onto another axon and adjusts the amt of neurotransmitter produced/ released from it’s dendrites

inactivates calcium channels

gate theory of pain

ascending pathways are what

cross section of spinal cord

grey matter and white matter is where in this picture

what are the two sensory neurons present in the spinal cord

sensory info comes into the spinal cord then is sent to the blank through where

in blue are the ascending pathway

descending pathways such as corticospinal tract for example descend from blank to blank blank and out to the blank

neuronal tracts that carry sensory info from the body/periphery up through the spinal cord to the brain

grey matter=inside, white matter is outside in the spinal cord

dorsal and ventral root

brain, the dorsal root

brainstem, spinal cord, muscles

two major sensory pathways

one if for blank blank and blank and the other is for what 4 things

they both have system of how many neurons

what is the first order neuron : they carry signals from the..

in the first order neuron what synapses with what

what is decussation

what two things occur in the second order neuron

what is third order neurons

touch proprioception and vibration other pain temperature, crude touch and itch

3 neurons

peripheral tissue to CNS-

their axons/cell body of axon synapse to spinal cord/Brian stem

second order neurons: synapsing in the thalamus + and then signal crosses over to the other side (decussation)

in thalamus from the thalamus

-cell body in thalamus(filters/filtering ) then synapses in the somatosensory cortex-(cortex in post central gyrus)

extra: they start from receptors which are sending their axons…

medial lemniscus/dorsal column system

it is medial lemniscus/dorsal column bc it is present int he dorsal part of the blank blank

blue=posterior, light born=anterior

dorsal column system is in dorsal part of the spinal cord, while it’s called dorsal column/medial meniscus system

called medial lemniscus system bc it’s medially oriented int he brain stem/toward the blank

spinal cord

thalamus

dorsal column=system that process info abt what two things

what is the first order neuron here: blank tissue to what, where does it terminate? in the blank

in dorsal column system: first synapse is in the blank does not synapse in the spinal cord, just pass thorough in the same side of blank blank. It synapses in the blank and then blank

second order neuron: terminates where? in the blank , what also occurs in the thalamus

third order neuron is called what: this structure is part of what

inside the encephalon we have the blank

it is a relay station for all blank but blank, what does it also do? (regarding information) then that info goes where

finally we will have blank of fine touch and proprioception

fine touch and proprioception vibration

peripheral tissue—>spinal cord→ medulla

medulla, spinal cord, medulla, crossover

thalamus (contralateral side/oposite side of origin) side of the thalamus

epithalamus, , encephalon,

thalamus: senses, smell

-filtering information, to the somatosensory cortex, perception

first order neuron:

peripheral tissue through spinal cord, terminates in medulla

what is the route for first order neurons in the lower body called

what is the route for first order neurons in the upper body called

recall:whatoccurs in the 2nd and 3rd order neuron

then synapsing occurs in what cortex, leading to what

fasiculus gracilis

fusiculus cunneatus

second order neuron: crosses over (decussation) terminates in the thalamus

cell body in thalamus (filtering)

somatosensory cortex and will have perception of fine touch proprioception

second system=anterolateral system-why? bc it is laterally coming to the lateral side, it is synapsing on the blank in spinal cord

crossing over and then it is positioned in the blank blank of the spinal cord and it stays on that side until it synapses in the blank

what is the first order neuron for anterolateral system blank tissues processes to the blank blank blank , blank blank blank will do what 3 things

from the thalamus, the info Is sent to the blank blank

depending on where this info is coming from blank or blank will end up toward either what two places?

interneurons

anterolateral side, thalamus

peripheral tissue—>processs to the posterior grey horn—>in posterior grey horn,

synapse, cross over(part of secondary neuron) , terminates in thalamus,

cerebral cortex, depending where this info is coming form, cervical or lumbar will e the midline(lumbar) or toward the middle part, cervical region(upper body)

lateral inhibition:

for sensation of pain, there is smth called gate theory of pain what does it mean

in drawing, can see some receptors on the fingertips and those receptors endings will send info of the pain and temp in blue but can also sense info abt fine touch

ex: touch proprioception of vibration

pain/temperature and touch proprioception receptors in the fingertips travel in blank route and then same blank blank

what happens once they get tot eh spinal cord

pain/temperature fibers synapse in what

touch/proprioception fibers ascend where

certain neurons can modulate/adjust the activity of diff neurons

similar, spinal nerve

they split.

in the dorsal horn

ascend straight to the brain

Unmodulated pain: define it

a painful stimulus activates blank, which send the signal along what

blank blank synapses onto a neuron in where blank blank, which sends that signal to what

right next to C fiber, sits an blank blank, the C fiber blanks this blank so it’s switched blank

when the inhibitory neuron is off,

when only pain fibers are active, the pain signal goes through at full strength

nociceptors(paint receptors) slow unmyelinated C fibers

C fiber, the spinal cord, the thalamus

inhibitory interneuron . inhibits, interneuron, off

, nothing blocks the pain pathway so the gate is open and the pain is felt in full

with modulated pain such as rubbing the painful spot, it activates blank receptors which send signals along which fibers, up what pathway

these fibers also send a branch tot he iblank blank which is now blank

the interneuron does what , why?

the gate is blank blank so you feel blank pain=gate theory of pain

mechanoreceptors , fast, myelinated fibers , up the dorsal column/medial lemniscus pathway

inhibitory interneuron, activated (unlike in unmodulated pain where it was shut off)

inhibits the pain pathway neuron, so only a weak pain signal reaches the thalamus

partly closed, less,

what is gate theory of pain:

both sensory pathways: dorsal column medial lemniscus and anterolateral. cross to the blank side to a stroke in one hemisphere affects which side of the body

what is ipsilateral

what is contralateral

damages at different points along the pathway (periphery to the cortex) causes diff symptoms

If the damage is in the cortex, you lose sensation on what side

that activation mechanoreceptors can modulate sensation of pain, example of lateral inhibition

opposite, affects the opposite side of the body

the same side

the opposite side

opposite side

ex:

stroke affecting the right hemisphere will affect left side of the body-contralateral effect

3 major layers of the eye

first layer is called what -what does it consist of

what is the second layer called-it consists of a blank supply , also consists of the blank, has blank blank and blank

the blank blank: holds the blank in place

what does blank do?

the pupil is another structure that does what

the third layer is called what , where is it located it is a blank blank blank

outer fibrous layer- white sclera and transparent clear conreum

vascular layer-vascular, choroid, iliary body, iris(iris is the color part of our eye

ciliary body/muscle -lens

Lens -bends the light that comes through the pupil

p- opens in the iris

retina-on the back of the eye , deep nervous layer