Exam #2 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Sensation & Perception

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated for Chapter 6 (Learning), Chapter 8 (Memory), and Chapter 5 (Sensation and Perception) in preparation for Exam #2.

Learning

The gain of new knowledge, skills, or response that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner, based on experience.

Sensitization

A phenomenon where the presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus.

Habituation

A process by which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding.

Classical Conditioning

When a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

Phase when the CS and US are presented together which causes a gradual increase in learning.

Extinction

Gradual elimination of a learned response (CR) that occurs when the US is no longer presented.

Spontaneous Recovery

The tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period.

Generalization

Phenomenon where CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition.

Discrimination

Capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Principle stating that behaviors followed by a 'satisfying state of affairs' tend to be repeated, and those producing an 'unpleasant state of affairs' are less likely to be repeated.

Operant Conditioning

Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment.

Reinforcer

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it.

Punisher

Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement procedure where something desirable is presented.

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement procedure where something undesirable is removed.

Positive Punishment

Punishment procedure where something undesirable is presented.

Negative Punishment

Punishment procedure where something desirable is removed.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Schedule where behavior is reinforced at a fixed time period.

Variable Interval Schedule

Schedule where behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Schedule where behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses has been made.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Schedule where behavior is reinforced based on a particular average number of responses.

Shaping

Learning that results from reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior.

Observational Learning

Learning that takes place by watching the actions of others.

Latent Learning

Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition.

Memory

Our brain's system for filing new information and recalling previously learned information; the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.

Sensory Memory

Place in which sensory information from the environment is kept for 1-2 seconds with passive attention.

Short-Term Memory

Place in which non-sensory information is kept for 15-20 seconds with active attention and a capacity of 7 +/- 2 items.

Long-Term Memory

Place in which information is held for hours, days, weeks, and years with no known storage limits.

Iconic Memory

Type of sensory memory for visual information (seen).

Echoic Memory

Type of sensory memory for auditory information (heard).

Explicit Memory

Long-term memory with conscious recall, including semantic memory and episodic memory.

Semantic Memory

A subcategory of explicit memory that stores facts & general knowledge.

Episodic Memory

A subcategory of explicit memory that stores personally experienced events.

Implicit Memory

Long-term memory without conscious recall, including procedural memory, priming, and emotional conditioning.

Procedural Memory

A subcategory of implicit memory consisting of motor & cognitive skills.

Priming

Implicit memory process involving the enhanced identification of objects or words.

Emotional Conditioning

Classically conditioned emotional response categorized under implicit memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Mentally repeating information to keep it in memory.

Chunking

Grouping information into smaller units to aid in memory.

Encoding

Process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into a lasting memory.

Memory Storage

Process of maintaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Process of bringing to mind information that was encoded and stored.

Semantic Encoding

Type of elaborative encoding that involves actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory.

Visual Imagery Encoding

Type of elaborative encoding that involves storing new information by converting it into mental pictures.

Organizational Encoding

Type of elaborative encoding involving the act of categorizing information by noticing relationships among a series of items.

Proactive Interference

Memory interference where old information interferes with new information.

Retroactive Interference

Memory interference where new information interferes with old information.

Case of H.M.

Case study of a patient who underwent experimental surgeries for seizures and could no longer encode information into long-term memory, proving multiple brain regions handle memory.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to transfer new information from short-term memory into long-term memory.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date.

Sensation

Sensory information detected by a sensory receptor.

Perception

How sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perceptual processing initiated by sensory input; data driven influence of the outside world on perception.

Top-Down Processing

Perceptual processing initiated by cognitive processing; influence of internal/mental world, expectations, and prior understanding on perception.

Sensory Adaptation

Automatic, involuntary process where you become less sensitive to sensory stimulation over time.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice something visible because you are actively attending to something else.

Signal Detection Theory

Ability to identify a stimulus from background stimuli, which may be accurate or inaccurate.

Cones

Photoreceptors that work best in bright light and are involved in our ability to perceive color.

Rods

Photoreceptors that work well in low light and are involved in our ability to see in dimly lit environments and perceive movement in the periphery of our visual field.

Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

Theory stating that we have 3 types of cones (red, blue, green) that produce all perceived colors when combined; explains color vision at the cone level.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory stating color is coded in opposite pairs, where visual system cells are excited by one opponent color and inhibited by the other; explains signals moving through retina to brain.

Binocular Cues

Depth perception cues relying on both eyes, such as binocular disparity.

Monocular Cues

Depth perception cues requiring only one eye.

Closure

Gestalt principle stating that our eyes close gaps when processing information.

Proximity

Gestalt principle stating that our brain groups information that is visually close together.

Similarity

Gestalt principle stating that we process similar things as the same.

Pitch

Perception of sound associated with the frequency of a sound wave.

Loudness

Perception of sound associated with the amplitude of a sound wave.

Temporal Theory

Theory of pitch perception stating that frequency is coded by the activity level of hair cells at the neurological level.

Place Theory

Theory of pitch perception stating that different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to different sound frequencies.