Flashcards Psychology Key Terms: Introspection, Hypotheses, Brain Structures, and Stress

Introspection

The process of examining and reporting on one's own conscious experience and inner thoughts.

Alternative hypothesis

A statement that suggests a relationship, difference, or effect exists between variables in a study.

Empirical; empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation.

Falsifiability; falsifiable; falsify

Karl Popper's principle that a scientific theory or claim must be testable and capable of being proven wrong.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations (bottom-up processing).

Deductive reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general principles or premises (top-down processing).

Null hypothesis

The default assumption that there is no relationship, difference, or effect between variables.

P-value (probability value)

The probability of observing the results if the null hypothesis is true (typically a p-value < .05 is considered statistically significant).

Objective

Unbiased, based on observable facts, and unaffected by personal feelings or interpretations.

Subjective

Based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.

Type I error

A false positive; concluding there is an effect or relationship when there actually isn't one.

Type II error

A false negative; failing to detect an effect or relationship that actually exists.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose, procedures, and any deception in a study to participants after its completion.

Ethics

Moral principles that govern researchers' conduct, ensuring participant safety, privacy, and well-being.

Dependent variable

The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment to see if it changes.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment.

Attrition

The loss of participants during a study, particularly common in longitudinal research.

Cohort effect

Differences between groups in a study that result from the unique historical experiences of the time period they grew up in, rather than age.

Confounds

Extraneous variables that could affect the dependent variable, making it difficult to determine true causation.

Operational definitions

Specific, measurable definitions of the variables being studied so they can be reliably tested.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize pre-existing differences.

Random sampling

Selecting a sample from a population such that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

Ecological validity

The degree to which research findings can generalize to real-world, naturalistic settings.

Generalization

Applying findings from a specific study sample to the broader population.

Falsified data

Data that has been fabricated, altered, or manipulated by researchers to fit a desired outcome.

Sample size

The number of participants included in a research study.

Dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins who share about 50% of their genes, developing from two separate fertilized eggs.

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins who share 100% of their genes, developing from a single fertilized egg.

Gyrus

A ridge or bump on the folded surface of the cerebral cortex (e.g., precentral gyrus).

Sulcus

A groove or depression on the folded surface of the cerebral cortex (e.g., central sulcus).

Wernicke's area (and Wernicke's aphasia)

A brain area involved in language comprehension; damage causes fluent but meaningless speech (Wernicke's aphasia).

Broca's area (and Broca's aphasia)

A brain area involved in language production; damage causes difficulty physically producing speech (Broca's aphasia).

Arcuate fasciculus

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting Wernicke's and Broca's areas in the brain.

Gray matter

Brain tissue composed primarily of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.

White matter

Brain tissue composed primarily of myelinated axons, responsible for communicating signals across the brain.

Nucleus

The part of a cell that contains the genetic material (DNA).

Soma

The cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus and keeps the cell functioning.

Axon

The long tail-like structure of a neuron that transmits electrical signals away from the soma to other neurons.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive chemical signals from other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A fatty, insulating layer that covers the axon and significantly speeds up the transmission of electrical signals.

Nodes of Ranvier

Tiny gaps in the myelin sheath along the axon where the action potential is recharged.

Synapse

The tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the next, where neurotransmitters are released.

Axon terminal (terminal bouton)

The end of the axon that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Stress

The physical and psychological response of the body to perceived internal or external threats.

Daily hassle

Minor everyday irritations (like traffic or lost keys) that can accumulate and cause significant stress.

Stressors

Specific events or situations that trigger a stress response in the body.

Eustress

Positive, motivating stress that can enhance performance and focus (e.g., excitement before a game).

Distress

Negative, overwhelming stress that impairs functioning and causes physical or emotional harm.

Cognitive appraisal

The personal interpretation of a situation to determine its threat level and one's ability to cope with it.

Emotional regulation

The ability to consciously control, evaluate, and modify one's emotional reactions.

Anxiety

A persistent feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or uncertain outcome.

External cues

Stimuli in the environment (sights, sounds, smells) that can trigger memories, emotional responses, or learned behaviors.

Flashback

A sudden, vivid memory of a traumatic event, often experienced as if it is happening right now in the present.

Sleep

A critical biological function essential for memory consolidation, emotional regulation, reducing stress, and physical health.

Diet

The food and drink a person consumes, which can significantly impact physiological stress responses and mental well-being (e.g., omega-3s).

Exercise habits

Regular physical activity, particularly rhythmic activities like running, known to be highly effective at reducing physiological stress.

Social support

The perception or reality that one is cared for, has assistance available, and is part of a supportive social network.

Stress management

Psychological and behavioral techniques designed to control and reduce a person's level of stress.

Stress reduction

The measurable outcome of utilizing coping strategies to lower the physiological and psychological effects of stress.

Problem-focused coping

A stress management strategy that involves taking direct, actionable steps to address or alter the stressor itself.

Emotion-focused coping

A stress management strategy focused on managing, reducing, or avoiding the negative emotions associated with a stressor.

Concentrative meditation

A relaxation technique that involves intensely focusing on a single unchanging stimulus (like breathing or a word) to clear the mind.

Mindfulness meditation

A technique involving non-judgmental awareness and acceptance of present-moment thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations.

Progressive muscle relaxation

A stress-reduction technique involving systematically tensing and then completely relaxing different muscle groups in the body.

Visualization

A relaxation technique that involves mentally imagining a peaceful, calming environment or scenario to reduce stress.

Synesthesia

A neurological condition where stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic experiences in a second sensory pathway (e.g., seeing colors when hearing music).

Habituation

A decrease in behavioral response or attention after repeated, prolonged exposure to a non-threatening stimulus.

Sensory adaptation

A decrease in the sensitivity of sensory receptors to a constant, unchanging stimulus (e.g., getting used to a smell).

Transduction

The biological process of converting physical stimuli from the environment (light, sound waves) into neural electrical signals for the brain.

Phantom limbs

The sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still physically attached to the body.

Phantom limb pain

Real, physical pain perceived as coming from an amputated or missing limb, caused by the brain reorganizing sensory pathways.

Sustained attention

The cognitive ability to maintain focused awareness on a specific target or task for an extended period of time.

Dichotic listening

A laboratory task where different audio messages are presented to each ear simultaneously to study selective attention.

Shadowing

A cognitive task requiring participants to repeat a spoken message aloud precisely as it is heard (often used in dichotic listening).

Inattentional blindness

Failing to notice a completely visible, but unexpected object or event because attention was highly focused elsewhere.

Limited capacity

The concept that our cognitive resources and attention can only process a certain, finite amount of information at a given time.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus auditory selective attention on a single conversation while filtering out a room full of background noise.

Intelligence

The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, solve problems, and deal effectively with the environment.

Spearman's g

Charles Spearman's idea of a single "general intelligence" factor that underlies all specific cognitive abilities and talents.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A standardized measure of intelligence, originally calculated as (mental age / chronological age) x 100.

Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

Created by David Wechsler, it is the most widely used adult intelligence test, measuring verbal and nonverbal/performance abilities.

Mental sets

A cognitive tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past, which can block new solutions.

Binet-Simon IQ test

The first modern intelligence test, created by Alfred Binet to identify school children who needed additional academic support.

Flynn effect

The historically observed phenomenon of average IQ scores steadily increasing over generations across the globe.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to think logically and solve complex problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.

Crystallized intelligence

The accumulation of knowledge, facts, vocabulary, and skills acquired throughout a person's life.

Confirmation bias

The cognitive tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology led by Wundt and Titchener that focused on breaking down conscious experience into its basic components using introspection.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology led by William James that focused on the purpose and evolutionary function of the mind and behavior.

Gestalt psychology

A psychological movement emphasizing that the whole of human experience is greater than the sum of its individual parts.

Psychodynamics

Freud's psychological approach focusing on unconscious drives, unresolved childhood conflicts, and hidden desires.

Cognitive psychology

The scientific study of mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, attention, and language.

Behavioral psychology

The psychological approach focusing strictly on observable behavior and how it is shaped by environmental conditioning (rewards/punishments).

Evolutionary psychology

The approach that examines how human behavior and mental processes have been shaped by natural selection and adaptation over time.

Humanistic perspective

The psychological approach emphasizing human potential, personal growth, self-actualization, and free will (agency).

Sociocultural perspective

The psychological approach that examines how social contexts, cultural norms, and environments heavily influence behavior and thinking.

Theory

A well-substantiated, comprehensive explanation of a phenomenon that organizes observations and accurately predicts behaviors or events.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship or association between two variables (does not prove causation).

Causal inference / causation

The conclusion that one variable directly causes a change in another, typically only established through true experimental designs.

True experimental studies

Research designs involving random assignment and the manipulation of an independent variable to directly determine causation.