PSY 360 - Learning & Cognition

classical conditioning

a method of learning where an organism pairs a neutral signal with a response to create a learned, automatic response

operant conditioning

a method of learning where voluntary behavior is modified by its consequences (such as rewards or punishments)

associative learning

the process by which an organism connects two distinct stimuli or events

modern learning theory

a theory that proposes that education is an active process

stages of information processing

sensation, perception, attention, memory, decision making, language, problem solving

cognition

the mental representations and mental processes used in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, and understanding

cognitive model

a simplified representation of how people think, learn, remember, make decisions, and solve problems

kamin blocking effect

a previously learned cue blocks learning about an additional cue, so the new cue has little/no effect on the learned response

sensation

translating physical energy from the environment into neural codes

top-down processing

• recalling prior knowledge or past experiences to understand what is being seen (feed-back)

• concept or context driven

bottom-up processing

• starting with details within the stimuli and building towards the whole picture (feed-forward)

• data or stimulus driven

absolute threshold

the lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected

difference threshold

smallest detectable difference or change between two stimuli (JND)

subliminal stimuli

information below the average threshold of sensation or consciousness

priming

exposure to a stimulus influencing the response to a later stimulus

forward masking

a masking stimulus before the target makes the target harder to notice

backward masking

a masking stimulus after the target makes the target harder to notice

signal detection theory

• how signals or stimuli are detected and judged by individuals

• discriminability → distinguishing stimuli present (bottom-up)

• bias → criterion of stimuli required by perceiver (top-down)

all-or-none step function

either the stimulus is detected or not

graded threshold function

the stronger the stimulus, the more likely one can detect it

criterion

the point or standard used to decide whether a signal is present

conservative bias

less likely to say a signal is present unless you’re almost certain

liberal bias

more likely to say a signal is present, even if you’re not completely sure

4 responses of sensory detection

hits: stimulus present + detected

false alarm: stimulus absent + detected

miss: stimulus present + not detected

correct rejection: stimulus absent + not detected

perception

organizing, identifying, and interpreting sensations → mental representations of objects and events

distal stimulus

the actual object in the outside world (causing the sensation)

proximal stimulus

the image or sensory information that reaches the senses

constructivist model

perception → sensory information + prior knowledge + expectations

template matching

• matching retinal image to exact stored template or mental copy

• viewer-centered representation + orientation-dependent

feature matching

• objects represented by individual features

• object-centered representations + more flexibility

prototype matching

• recognizing objects by comparing it to a typical example

• object recognition → depends on similarity to mental prototype

structural descriptions

• objects are recognized by how parts are arranged and related

• geons: geometric ions (simplest elements → arrangement)

interactive activation model

• object recognition happens through multiple levels of processing

• connectionist network: features → letters → words

Gibson’s theory of direct perception

• perception → directly from information present in the stimulus

• motion + invariants provide all necessary information (bottom-up)

saccade

a quick movement of the eyes from one point to another

attention

focusing on specific information while ignoring distractions

bottleneck model of attention

attention has a limited capacity; some information must be filtered out

Broadbent’s early selection filter model

• sensory channels → attention (bottleneck) → unattended channels = blocked + attended channels = allowed/processed

cocktail party phenomenon

the ability to focus on one conversation while ignoring others, but still notice personally important information from a nearby conversation

Treisman’s early selection attenuation model

• unattended channels = weakened, not completely blocked

• attention modulates based on loudness, importance, relevance

Deutsch late selection model

• all information is processed for meaning, but only relevant information is selected and reaches short-term memory

• short-term memory = bottleneck

capacity model of attention

attention is a limited pool of mental resources based on arousal

pools of resources capacity model

attention is a limited allocation of cognitive resources that can be divided or shared between tasks (example: multitasking)

glue capacity model

attention binds different features together; one object perceived

conjunction error

when features from different objects are incorrectly combined

stroop effect

distracting information interferes with completing a task (stroop test)

controlled processing

processing that requires conscious attention and mental effort

automatic processing

processing that happens quickly with little conscious effort

psychological refractory period (PRP)

two tasks close together → delay in second response

attention as executive control

attention controls and directs cognitive processes

attention related to automaticity

with practice, some controlled processes can become automatic

stage analysis of memory

encoding → storage → retrieval

procedural memory

memory for how to perform skills or actions

declaritive memory

memory regarding facts (semantic) or events (episodic)

semantic memory

type of declarative memory; facts, knowledge, meanings

episodic memory

type of declarative memory; personal experiences or events

implicit memory

memories that influence behavior without conscious awareness (ex: habits)

explicit memory

memories that you consciously remember and can intentionally recall (ex: recall and recognition)

modal model of memory (3-stage system)

• sensory memory

  • visual and auditory

• short-term memory

  • working memory; holds 5-7 items

• long-term memory

  • stores information for long periods of time

forgetting curve

without rehearsal, information is forgotton quickly at first, then the rate of forgetting slows down (inverse relationship)

time-dependency principle

the longer it has been since you learned something, the more likely you are to forget it (emphasis on interferance)

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle

elaboration principle

information is remembered better when you connect it to other information and give it meaning (effective)

rote rehearsal

repeating information over and over without adding meaning to it (not effective)

organizational principle

information is easier to remember when it is organized into meaningful groups or categories (among stimuli)

cue-dependency principle

memory retrieval depends on having the right cues available

levels of processing theory

the deeper the information is processed, the better recall

encoding specificity principle

memory is better when the conditions during retrieval match the conditions when originally encoding the information

scripts

stored mental frameworks that outline the step-by-step sequence of events and expected behaviors for familiar social situations

long-term memory organization

• hierarchical = categories

• associative = connections

• chronological = time

• thematic = topic or subject

schema

mental framework or organized pattern of knowledge that helps with understanding and interpreting new information based on prior knowledge

schema congruence

occurs when new information or an experience matches what you already expect or know based on your existing schema

schematic processing principle

using existing schemas, prior knowledge and expectations, to process, interpret, and remember new information

post-event information

new information received after an event has happened that can influence or change how the original event is remembered

reconstruction principle

every memory is a blend of information recovered from memory traces, knowledge, expectations, and beliefs

flashbulb memories

• vivid and detailed memories of an emotionally significant event

• where, who, how, and when → are answerable

concept

an idea or mental representation

category

a group or classification of items that share characteristics

out-group effect

the tendency to see members of a group you don’t belong to as more alike than they actually are

prototype model

categorizing an item by comparing it to the most ideal or typical example

exemplar model

categorizing an item by comparing to to specific examples you’ve encountered or remember

statisitical learning

the ability to detect patterns from repeated exposure, such as recognizing which sounds tend to occur together in language

types of concepts

• types of objects

  • natural kinds

  • artifacts

  • conventionally defined

• levels in a hierarchy

  • basic level of category (accompanied by subordinates)

effects of categorization

• categorical perception; discrete categories

• labeling and stereotypes

between-group discriminability

distinguishing one group from another group

within-group discriminability

distinguishing individual items within the same group

semantic feature models

• classical view; defining features

• probabilistic view; characteristic features

• hybrid models; characteristic + defining

typicality effects

recognizing common examples of a category faster than unusual examples

psychological essentialism

belief that things have an underlying essence that makes them what they are

ad-hoc categories

groups created for a specific purpose or situation

dual coding theory

Paivio; people learn and remember information better when it is presented in both words (verbal) and images (visual)

isomorphism

there is a relationship between the structure of brain activity and a person's mental experiences

perky effect

mistaking a faint mental image for a real image

visual imagery

mentally picturing something in your mind

auditory imagery

mentally hearing a sound in your mind

olfactory imagery

mentally imagining a smell