Understanding the Self: Perspectives from Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology, Biology, and Spirituality

Comprehensive practice flashcard set covering the philosophical, psychological, sociological, biological, material, and spiritual perspectives of the self.

Why is philosophy referred to as the "Mother of all Disciplines" in the study of the self?

Because it was inevitable for philosophy to develop various conceptions of what it means to be human, leading to definitions of the self as a unified being connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency (or rational choice).

What Greek aphorism inscribed at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi served as Socrates' guiding principle?

"KNOW THYSELF" (one of the 147 Greek aphorisms).

What was Socrates' view of the real self and the physical body?

He believed the real self is not the physical body but the psyche (soul), asserting that "an unexamined life is not worth living," and that the body is merely an inferior receptacle for the soul.

How did Socrates propose an individual can come to know their soul?

By seeking within through questioning, known as the Socratic Method.

In Plato's Phaedrus, into what two forms or realms can truth be distinguished?

1. The Metaphysical realm (mind) and 2. The Physical world (body).

How did Plato bifurcate truth or reality?

Into Ontos (the ideal, ultimate, permanent, and spiritual reality) and Phenomena (the imperfect, impermanent, and inferior reality).

What was Aristotle's perspective regarding the relationship between essence and matter in the human self?

He believed they co-exist and are co-independent: Essence (Ideal) provides meaning and purpose, while Matter (Phenomena) provides substance and solidity.

How do Empiricism and Rationalism differ regarding innate knowledge?

Empiricism posits no innate knowledge, deriving knowledge solely from sensory experience processed by the brain; Rationalism posits that innate knowledge exists and conclusions are derived through logic and reasoning.

What quote from Erich Fromm helps explain the historical evolution of philosophical views of the self?

"You can only understand humans in the context of their history."

What was St. Augustine's view of the self during the Middle Ages?

Grounded in Neoplatonism, he viewed the self as the soul, asserting that all knowledge leads to God and that love of God, faith in Him, and understanding the Gospel lead to happiness.

What did René Descartes assert regarding the self, and what is Mind-Body Dualism?

Descartes asserted "I think, therefore I am" (the self is the thinking mind); Mind-Body Dualism holds that the mind and soul can exist without the body, establishing the soul's immortality and afterlife.

How does John Locke define personal identity in his Theory of Personal Identity?

He proposed that knowledge develops through experience on a blank slate (Tabula Rasa) and that personal identity exists in consciousness alone through memory of past experiences, not in the body or soul.

What was David Hume's view of the self in his Skeptical Philosophy?

He claimed there is no persistent self, asserting that the self is merely a "bundle of perceptions" passing through the senses.

How did Immanuel Kant define the rational and moral self?

As an autonomous person capable of moral choice where reason is the final authority of morality, composed of an inner self (rational reasoning/psychological states) and an outer self (physical body/mind representation).

Why did Gilbert Ryle argue that the mind is a "category mistake" in The Concept of Mind?

He argued "I act, therefore, I am," rejecting the idea that the mind is a separate, parallel seat of self from the body and attributing the separation to habitual language use.

How do Patricia Churchland and Maurice Merleau-Ponty describe the physical basis of the self?

Churchland (Neurophilosophy) asserts the physical brain gives us a sense of self and neuroscience will eliminate the need for beliefs; Merleau-Ponty (Phenomenology of Perception) asserts "We are our bodies," unseparated into subject and object.

In William James' theory of self-concept, what is the distinction between the "I-Self" and the "Me-Self"?

The I-Self is the subjective knower acting in the here and now, while the Me-Self is the objective known, serving as the repository of all past, present, and future experiences.

What are the three components that make up William James' "Me-Self"?

1. Material Self (possessions valued or desired), 2. Social Self (relationships within society), and 3. Spiritual Self (inner character, values, and beliefs).

What quote from Theodor Adorno emphasizes the social nature of the self?

"Not only is the self entwined in society, but it also owes society its existence in the most literal sense."

What formula did William James propose for self-esteem?

$$\text{Self-esteem} = \frac{\text{success}}{\text{pretensions}}$$

According to William James, what three relationships between success and expectations alter self-esteem levels?

High success + realistic goals = High Self-Esteem; Low success + High Expectations = Low Self-Esteem; Moderate Success + lower expectations = Healthy Self-Esteem.

According to William James, what two methods can a person use to raise their self-esteem?

By doing better, or by being kinder and more realistic with oneself.

What characterizes Albert Bandura's proactive and agentic view of the self?

It views individuals as active creators of their lives who take initiative, anticipate consequences, and regulate actions to shape their futures, rather than merely responding to external forces.

What are the three main steps of self-regulation according to Albert Bandura?

1. Self-observation (monitoring), 2. Judgement (evaluation), and 3. Self-response (reaction or self-reinforcement).

How do self-reward and self-punishment function in Bandura's self-regulation?

Self-reward involves treating yourself for good behavior, while self-punishment involves adjusting your behavior when you fail to meet standards.

How does Albert Bandura define self-efficacy and distinguish between its two levels?

Self-efficacy is our belief in our capabilities to achieve a goal; High Self-Efficacy is characterized by believing "I can do this," whereas Low Self-Efficacy is characterized by believing "I can't do this."

What are the three structures of the mind in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic model?

1. Id (primitive, instinctual, pleasure-seeking), 2. Ego (rational part balancing reality), and 3. Superego (moral conscience learned from society).

What is congruence in Carl Rogers' humanistic theory of the self?

The state where our actual experiences and behaviors are consistent with how we see ourselves and who we want to become.

How did Carl Rogers distinguish between Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard?

Conditional Positive Regard occurs when people feel accepted only if they meet certain expectations, while Unconditional Positive Regard is accepting and valuing a person even when they make mistakes.

According to the humanistic self-concept model, what are the three sub-components that define how we see ourselves?

Self-Image/Real Self (who we actually are), Ideal Self (who we want to be), and Self-Worth (how much we value ourselves).

What is the foundational premise of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Self theory?

The self is formed through social interaction and overcoming specific life challenges or crises across eight stages from birth to old age.

In Erikson's stage of Trust vs. Mistrust, what is the period of life, key life event, primary relationship, and core outcome?

Period: Infancy (birth to 18 months); Event: Feeding; Relationship: Maternal; Choices: To give in return, To get; Outcome: Trust developed toward the caregiver via affection and care, while lack of this leads to mistrust.

What is the crisis, important event, and relationship in Erikson's early childhood stage (18 months to 3 years)?

Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt; Event: Toilet training; Relationship: Paternal; Choices: To hold on, To let go; Outcome: Personal control over physical skills and independence versus shame and doubt.

What is the crisis, significant relationship, and basic choice during Erikson's preschool stage (3 to 5 years)?

Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt; Event: Exploration; Relationship: Family; Choices: To make, To make like; Outcome: Asserting power over the environment gives a sense of purpose, while disapproval brings guilt.

What is the psychosocial crisis and key outcome during Erikson's elementary school stage (6 to 11 years)?

Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority; Event: School; Relationship: School and neighborhood; Choices: To make things, To make together; Outcome: Praise brings a sense of competence, while ridicule/rejection strengthens inferiority.

In Erikson's stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion, what are the choices and outcomes experienced during adolescence (12 to 18 years)?

Choices: To be oneself; To share being oneself; Relationship: Peer group; Outcome: Developing a centered personal identity leads to staying true to oneself, while failure leads to role confusion, a negative identity, or a weak sense of self.

What is the crisis and basic choice during Erikson's young adulthood stage (19 to 40 years)?

Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation; Event: Relationships; Relationship: Partners in friendship, sex, and competition; Choices: To lose; To bind oneself to others; Outcome: Strong loving relationships versus loneliness and isolation.

How does Erikson define generativity in middle adulthood (40 to 65 years)?

Generativity means reaching beyond immediate concerns to embrace the welfare of society and future generations by nurturing things that outlast oneself; failure leads to stagnation and shallow involvement.

What is the conflict, significant relationship, and outcome of Erikson's final stage (65 years to death)?

Conflict: Integrity vs. Despair; Relationship: Mankind; Choices: To be, through having been; To face not being; Outcome: Wisdom from a sense of fulfillment versus regret, bitterness, and despair.

How do sociological and anthropological perspectives on the self challenge isolated individualist perspectives?

They argue the self does not exist in a vacuum; it is shaped by society, culture, social interaction, and participation in different social positions rather than solely by isolated self-exploration.

What do Hughes and Kroehler (2008) assert regarding human development and the social environment?

They state that humans are born, fully develop, and live their lives in a social environment, with thoughts, feelings, speech, and actions shaped by interactions with other people.

How does Kendall (2006) differentiate society from culture?

"Society is composed of people" and "Culture is composed of ideas, behavior, and material possessions."

What is the difference between material culture and non-material culture?

Material culture consists of physical objects (attire, tools, weapons, architecture, religious implements), while non-material culture consists of shared beliefs, values, norms, symbols, and language.

How are norms and values defined within culture?

Norms are rules detailing what to do or not to do in specific situations; Values are ideal principles establishing standards of acceptable and admirable behavior.

What are social institutions according to McIntyre (2002)?

Sets of ideas, norms, practices, or mechanisms organized and focused on addressing the needs of the community to maintain a smoothly functioning society.

What is socialization?

A lifelong process of learning, teaching, internalizing, and living the culture of society.

What is the difference between ascribed status and achieved status?

Ascribed status is inherited or assigned at birth, whereas achieved status is acquired through personal accomplishments and actions.

How are roles defined in sociological terms?

Parts to play in society that include expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes attached to a specific social status.

How did George Herbert Mead conceptualize the "I" and the "Me" in social interaction?

The 'Me' is how others see the self (the socialized self), while the 'I' is the personal assessment and active response to the social self; a healthy identity requires balance between the two.

What is the primary distinction between William James' and George Herbert Mead's explanations of the Me-Self?

William James explains what the self is made of (material, social, spiritual components), while George Herbert Mead explains how the self is formed (through social interaction and role-taking).

What did Markus & Kitayama (1991) state regarding culture and self-definition?

They pointed out that cultural values influence psychological processes primarily through how individuals define and see their 'selves' in relation to others in their social network.

How does the view of the self differ between Western/Individualist and Eastern/Collectivist societies?

Western/Individualist societies view the self as an independent, organized whole against other wholes; Eastern/Collectivist societies view the self as an emerging concept from combined multiple identities and social connections.

What is Confucius' Eastern perspective of the self?

A relational identity defined by cardinal relationships (e.g., ruler-minister, father-son) nurtured through reciprocity, interdependence, and interrelatedness.

According to the salient features table, how do Individualist and Collectivist cultures compare regarding independence and group orientation?

Individualist cultures foster independence, individual achievement, self-expression, and private property; Collectivist cultures foster interdependence, group success, adherence to norms, respect for elders/authority, and shared property.

What were the views of early philosophers and William James regarding the relationship between the body and mind/soul?

Early philosophers viewed the body as a vessel for the soul but secondary to it; William James viewed the body as the primary source of sensation necessary for personality, but secondary to the mind.

What are Sigmund Freud's salient erogenous zones across developmental stages?

Infancy: mouth; Early childhood: anus; Late childhood: latency; Adulthood: genitals.

How many chromosome pairs does an individual carry, and which pair determines biological sex?

An individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair (sex chromosomes: XY for male, XX for female) determines biological sex.

What is DNA and how does it replicate to allow development?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains genetic instructions specifying individual development; it copies itself through mitosis, allowing the fertilized ovum to develop into a complex human.

At 6 to 8 weeks postconception, how do chromosomes guide gonad differentiation in XX vs. XY fetuses?

At 6 weeks, primordial gonads are undifferentiated. At 8 weeks in XY fetuses, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome encodes testes-determining factor leading to testes; in XX fetuses, the absence of SRY leads to ovarian development.

How do internal structures develop between 9 and 12 weeks postconception in XX and XY individuals?

In XX fetuses, the Müllerian system develops in the absence of androgens/anti-Müllerian hormone while the Wolffian system remains primitive; in XY fetuses, testosterone develops the Wolffian system while anti-Müllerian hormone deteriorates the Müllerian system.

How do external structures differentiate between 6 and 12 weeks postconception in males versus females?

In males, 5-alpha-reductase converts testosterone to 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone to masculinize structures into a penis and scrotum; in females, external structures (labia, clitoris, outer vagina) develop in the absence of androgens.

What hormonal cascade initiates puberty (8–16 years) in both males and females?

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to release LH and FSH, signaling the gonads to release estradiol/estrogen (females) or testosterone (males).

What secondary sex characteristics develop during puberty in males and females?

Males develop facial hair and a deeper voice driven by androgens; females develop wider hips and bust development driven by estrogen and progesterone.

What four interacting factors show that biology alone does not write the whole story of development?

1. Genes, 2. Hormones, 3. Environment, and 4. Behavior.

What common emotional changes typically accompany puberty?

Greater self-consciousness, changing moods, curiosity, attraction, and concern about belonging.

What are the four components of body image?

1. Perceptual (how I see my size/shape), 2. Cognitive (what I believe my body means about me), 3. Emotional (how I feel about my body), and 4. Behavioral (how beliefs affect eating, movement, clothing, or social life).

What six external and internal influences shape an individual's body image?

Family messages, Media, Peers, Health and ability, Culture, and Personal experience.

How does body positivity differ from body neutrality?

Body positivity challenges discrimination and affirms that all bodies deserve dignity and visibility; Body neutrality focuses on what the body does and permits mixed or ordinary feelings about appearance.

What are the six foundational practices for caring for the physical self?

Sleep, Hygiene and care, Food and hydration, Stress regulation, Movement, and Compassion (replacing harsh self-criticism with respectful self-talk).

What six dimensions illustrate that human sexuality is broader than sexual behavior?

Body (anatomy/health), Values (beliefs/culture), Identity (self-understanding), Relationships (affection/intimacy), Attraction (emotional/sexual interest patterns), and Choices (boundaries/behavior).

How are gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation distinguished from one another?

Gender identity is a person's internal sense of gender; Gender expression is how one presents gender through appearance/behavior; Sexual orientation is a pattern of romantic or sexual attraction.

Why is the brain considered the body's largest sexual organ?

It receives information from nerve endings, processes it, sends lightning-fast commands, and can generate sexual responses purely through perception or watching others being touched.

What did the experiment measuring men's brain responses to leg touch demonstrate about touch perception?

Touch delivered by the same woman was perceived as pleasurable when watching a video of a woman touching them, but aversive when watching a video of a man touching them, demonstrating that the brain responds to social and emotional messages rather than touch alone.

Why are the lips considered an important erogenous zone?

They are the most exposed erogenous part of the body and possess a huge number of nerve endings that transmit large amounts of sensory information to the brain.

What percentage of people report having sexual fantasies during intercourse, and what does this indicate?

Approximately 60% of people; having fantasies does not represent an actual desire to fulfill or act them out in real life.

What are the four phases of the Human Sexual Response Cycle identified by William Masters and Virginia Johnson?

1. Excitement phase, 2. Plateau phase, 3. Orgasm phase, and 4. Resolution phase.

How does the resolution phase differ between men and women in the Sexual Response Cycle?

Women can repeat the sexual response cycle quickly, whereas men experience a refractory period lasting from a few minutes to a full day during which erection and orgasm cannot reoccur.

What causes Chlamydia and Gonorrhea, and what are their primary characteristics?

Chlamydia is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria (the leading bacterial STI and most common cause of genital and eye disease); Gonorrhea (the 'clap' or 'drip') is a bacterial infection attacking mucous membranes.

What are the reported effectiveness rates of male and female condoms as barrier contraception?

Male condoms are 98% effective, while female condoms are 95% effective.

What conclusion have scientists reached regarding sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation is neither chosen nor changed; it is a naturally varying occurrence among humans (similar to height) that may be fluid across the lifespan.

What is terminal nerve zero and what is its role in sexual attraction?

A cranial nerve connected to the septal nucleus that translates pheromones and biochemical cues, initiating reproductive behavior and triggering the release of sex hormones and neurochemicals.

How do dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and oxytocin function in attraction and relationships?

Dopamine provides reward and pleasure; Serotonin regulates mood and teaches desire/satisfaction; Norepinephrine stimulates fight-or-flight energy; Oxytocin (the cuddle hormone) relaxes defenses and deepens trust.

In the LGBTQ+ initialism graphic, what do the core letters LGBTQ and expanded LGBTTTQQIAA acronyms signify?

LGBTQ: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer or Questioning. Expanded LGBTTTQQIAA: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Transsexual, Two-Spirit, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, Asexual, Ally.

According to the clinical eating disorders summary, how do Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, BED, and ARFID differ in key behavioral features and weight status?

Anorexia: severe food restriction, very low weight, fear of gaining weight; Bulimia: binge eating + purging, usually normal weight; BED: binge eating without purging, often overweight/obese; ARFID: avoids food without body image concern, may be underweight.

What is the Material Self according to William James?

The tangible elements of the self—including the body, clothing, possessions, and close relationships—into which people invest emotional value, viewing them as extensions of identity.

Why are the body and clothing considered key components of the material self?

The body is the most intimate and essential possession ("Your body is your possession"); clothes bring physical sensations directly affecting attitude and behavior ("Clothing is a form of self-expression").

Why are immediate family and the home considered parts of the material self?

Immediate family members' successes or failures affect us as if they were our own; the home is the earliest nest of selfhood whose environment reflects personal preferences and priorities.

What two criteria does William James provide to determine whether an entity belongs to the self?

1. Whether we respond emotionally when the entity is praised or attacked, and 2. Whether we give it considerable attention and effort to improve or maintain it.

What three reasons explain why individuals value possessions?

1. Possessions serve a symbolic function, 2. Possessions extend the self over time, and 3. Emotional attachment gives possessions importance.

According to Jean-Paul Sartre, what are the three ways people connect with objects to make them extensions of self?

1. Controlling an object (or using objects to control others), 2. Creating or buying an object (investing effort or money), and 3. Knowing about something (mastering knowledge about a subject or intimately knowing a person).

How has the shift from production to consumption affected self-perception according to Hurson (2013)?

Instead of making what is needed, people now buy ready-made products for convenience, finding it more relaxing or satisfying to buy things rather than create them.

According to Richins (1994), how do highly materialistic individuals differ from less materialistic individuals?

Highly materialistic people value possessions for their utility in boosting social status and gaining acceptance, whereas less materialistic people value possessions for the joy and comfort they provide.

What is consumerism, and what are its primary positive and negative effects?

Consumerism is the concept that expanding goods consumption benefits the economy. Positives: economic growth, job creation, innovation, and product variety; Negatives: environmental waste, debt, social pressure, materialism, and low self-esteem.

What four elements define the Spiritual Self?

1. Meaning (what makes life significant), 2. Connection (felt relationship with self, others, nature, community, or the sacred), 3. Values (principles guiding choices), and 4. Transcendence (experiences reaching beyond immediate wants or ego).

What is the etymological root of the word "religion" and how does it differ from spirituality?

Religion comes from the Latin 'religare' meaning 'to bind together' (an organized system of beliefs, community, and practices); Spirituality is a personal search for meaning, connection, values, and transcendence.

What three components give life direction within the spiritual self?

1. Purpose (a reason to study, work, care, or continue), 2. Coherence (a story helping life events make sense), and 3. Significance (a sense that one's life matters).

How do values relate to choices, behavior, and tension in spiritual development?

Values guide choices when priorities compete; repeated action turns stated values into lived values; tension occurs when two good values conflict (such as loyalty and fairness).

What are four distinct Filipino expressions of spirituality?

1. Prayer and Worship, 2. Pagdamay (showing empathy and solidarity), 3. Bayanihan (communal cooperation), and 4. Respect for Elders.

What are the four components of mindfulness and present awareness?

Notice (attend to breath, thoughts, feelings), Choose (respond to values rather than reacting automatically), Allow (recognize experiences without judgment), and Limit (recognize that mindfulness does not replace professional care).

What are the three psychological phases Viktor Frankl observed among concentration camp prisoners?

1. Shock, 2. Apathy (blunting of emotions acting as a protective shell against brutalities), and 3. Depersonalization (a post-liberation state where everything feels unreal or dreamlike).