APA1105 Midterm 1

Midterm 1

Aristotles first correct idea

blood vessels arose from the brain

What did Galen accurately describe

spine and spinal cord

Osteology

study of bones and their landmarks

Arthrology

study of joints and their components

Myology

study of muscles

Neurology

study of nervous system

Angiology

study of blood vessels

Cardiology

study of cardiovascular system

Gastroenterology

study of digestive tract

Pulmonology

study of respiratory system

Urology

study of urinary system

Gynecology

study of reproductive system

Embryology

study of prenatal development

Anatomy

Science studying the structures of the body and the relationship among structures

Physiology

study of the function of the structure

What is anatomical position

Standing

Looking straight forward

Palms facing forward

Bilateral

Both sides

Unilateral

One side

Ipsilateral

Same side

Contralateral

Opposite side

Medial and Lateral

Medial - Towards the midline

Lateral - Away from the midline

Distal and proximal

Distal - a structure that is farther from the point of origin or trunk

Proximal - a structure that is nearer to the point of origin or the trunk of the body

Anterior and posterior

Anterior - Refers to the front of the body or toward the front of a structure

Posterior - Refers to the back of the body or toward the back of a structure

Inferior and Superior

Superior - A structure located higher than another

Inferior - A structure located lower than another

The sagittal plane

The frontal plane

The transverse plane

The oblique plane

Sagittal horizontal axis (X)

Anterior-posterior axis

Movements about this axis occur in the frontal plane

E.g. Abduction of the shoulder

Frontal or transverse horizontal axis (Y)

Medial-lateral axis

Movements about this axis occur in the sagittal plane

E.g. Flexion of the shoulder, flexion of the trunk

Vertical or longitudinal axis (Z)

Distal-proximal axis

Movements about this axis occur in transverse plane

E.g. Internal/external shoulder rotation, head rotation (no)

Flexion/extension

Sagittal plane

About ML axis

In limbs: flexion decreases angle between segments

Upper limbs: flexion = forward

Abduction/adduction

Frontal plane (AP axis)

Abduction moves limbs away from midline

Rotation

Transverse plane (vertical axis)

Neck/spine: left/right rotation

Limbs: internal/external rotation

Circumduction

Movement in a circle

In all planes

Spine/neck lateral flexion

Lateral flexion is the movement of bending the trunk or neck to the side

Forearm supination/pronation

Supination - the rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces upward or anteriorly

Pronation - the opposite movement, where the palm faces downward or posteriorly

Ankle dorsiflexion/plantar flexion

Dorsiflexion - is the movement of pulling the top of the foot toward the shin, decreasing the angle between the foot and lower leg

Plantar flexion - is the opposite movement, pointing the sole of the foot away from the shin, increasing the angle between the foot and lower leg

Ankle inversion/eversion

Inversion - Sole turns inward toward the midline

Eversion - Sole turns outward away from the midline

Mandible protraction/retraction

Protraction - the movement of the lower jaw forward

Retraction - the movement of the lower jaw backward

Mandible depression/elevation

Elevation - Upward movement of the lower jaw

Depression - Downward movement of the lower jaw

Thumb opposition/reposition

Opposition - a complex motion that allows the thumb to meet the pads of the other fingers

Reposition - the movement that returns the thumb from opposition back to its neutral anatomical position

Scapula Protraction/retraction

Protraction - This is the movement of the shoulder blades laterally away from the spine

Retraction - This involves pulling the shoulder blades toward the spine

Range of motion

Extent of movement of a joint through a given motion

Active range of motion

Range achievable by person without any assistance

Passive range of motion

Range achievable when person is relaxed and limb is guided through the motion by the assessor

Resistive range of motion

Range achievable when person moves against resistance from assessor

How many bones are in the human body

At birth 270-300 bones

Adult: 206 bones

Axial skeleton: central axis

Cranium, vertebral column, ribs, sternum

Appendicular skeleton

Upper/lower limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles

Function of the skeletal system (5)

Supports the body

Facilitates movement

Protects internal organs

Produces blood cells

Stores and releases minerals and fat

What is a long bone + example

Cylindrical shape and longer then it is wide

Femur

What is a short bone + example

Cube like shape about as long as it is wide

Carpal bones

What is a flat bone + example

Thin and curved

Skull and ribs

What is a irregular bone + example

Complex shapes

Vertebrae and pelvis

What is a sesamoid bone + example

Small round bone embedded into a tendon

Patella

Osteogenic cells (stem cells) function

Develop into osteoblasts

Osteogenic cells (stem cells) location

Deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow

Osteoblasts function

Bone formation

Osteoblasts location

Surface of bone tissue and in the growing portions of bone

Osteocytes function

Maintenance of bone tissue

Osteocytes location

Entrapped in the matrix of bone tissue

Osteoclasts function

Resorption of bone tissue

Osteoclasts location

Found on the bone surface

Compact/cortical bone

Strong, dense

80% of skeleton

Structural unit of Compact/cortical bone

Osteon

Spongy/Cancellous bone

Lacunae and osteocytes arranged in lattice-like network of spikes called trabeculae

Less dense, lighter

Space can contain marrow

Blood and nerve supply

Arteries supply nourishment to spongy bone

Nerves follow same path

Cartilage

Connective tissue

Made up of collagen and elastic fibers

Hyaline cartilage

Covers joint surfaces

Smooth

Fibrocartilage

Junction between bones

E.g., pelvic bone junctions

Strong

Elastic cartilage

E.g., ear

Flexible

Exercise and its affect on bones

Mechanical stress stimulates deposition of bone tissue

Lack of mechanical stress causes loss of mineral salts and collagen fibres (↓density)

E.g., astronauts lose 1-2% bone mass per month

Calcium

Critical component of bone (calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate)

Cannot be made by body

Vitamin D (Its affect on bones)

Calcium can’t be absorbed without Vitamin D

Vitamin K (Its affect on bones)

Supports bone mineralization, works with Vitamin D

Magnesium (Its affect on bones)

60% of magnesium in body is in bone

Fluoride (Its affect on bones)

Helps strengthen bone mineral

Omega-3 fatty acids (Its affect on bones)

Reduces inflammation, which can interfere with osteoblast function

Growth hormone

Secreted by pituitary gland

Controls bone growth, increases calcium retention, stimulates osteoblast activity

Thyoxine

Secreted by thyroid gland

Promotes osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis

Estrogen/testosterone

Promote osteoblast activity and bone matrix production during puberty

Promote conversion of epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line

Parathyroid hormone

Stimulates osteoclast proliferation and bone resorption

Causes calcium to be released from bones and circulate

Calcitonin

Secreted by thyroid

Inhibits osteoclast activity, stimulates calcium uptake by bones

Opposes parathyroid hormone

Osteoporosis

Decrease in bone density

Rate of resorption > formation

Weakens bone

Joints (articulations)

Locations where bones come together

Can be classified based on structure or function

Synarthrosis joint

Immobile/nearly immobile

Strong union

Important for protecting internal organs

Ex.. Joints between cranial bones (sutures)

Ex.. Joint between manubrium and sternum

Amphiarthrosis joint

Limited mobility

Strongly connected, but permits some motion

Ex.. Intervertebral discs

Ex.. Pubic symphysis of pelvis

Diarthrosis

Freely mobile

Ex.. All synovial joints

Ex.. Hip + Knee + Elbow

Joint function classifications

Synarthrosis – immobile/nearly immobile

Amphiarthrosis – limited mobility

Diarthrosis – freely mobile

Joint structure classifications

Fibrous joints

Cartilaginous joints

Synovial Joints

Fibrous joints functionality

Can be synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic

What are the types of fibrous joints

Suture = “to bind/sew” 

Syndesmosis = “fastened with a band” 

• A sheet of tissue holding them together  

Gomphosis = “fastened with bolts” Eg. Teeth

Cartilaginous joints functionality

Can be synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic

Types of Cartilaginous joints

Synchondrosis = “joined by cartilage”

Usually synarthrotic

Symphysis = “growing together”

Usually amphiarthrotic

Synovial Joint functionality

Diarthrotic 

How do synovial joints work

Bones are not directly connected

Cartilge works as shock absorber

Synovial fluid provides nutrients

What is a Bursa

A fluid filled sack for cushioning

Types of synovial joints

Pivot joint

Hinge joint

Condyloid (ellipsoid) joint

Saddle joint

Plane (gliding) joint

Ball and socket

Pivot joint

• 1 degree of freedom (DOF) 

• Radial ulnar joint 

• Cervical spine connects to skull 

• Rotation 

• Distal proximal axis