AP Psychology Unit 2: Mental Processes and Memory

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering sensation, perception, memory systems, retrieval, cognitive biases, and intelligence from AP Psychology Unit 2.

Bottom-up processing

The process where you experience sensory inputs without any prior knowledge.

Top-down processing

Perception of stimuli influenced by prior experiences, expectations, and knowledge.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Perceptual sets

Predispositions that affect your interpretation of sensory information.

Closure

A Gestalt principle where the brain fills in visual gaps to perceive a complete object, such as seeing a soccer ball from hexagons.

Figure and ground

A Gestalt principle where one visual stimulus is assigned as the figure and another as the background.

Proximity

A Gestalt principle where objects that are close together are perceived as one group.

Similarity

A Gestalt principle where the brain groups together visual elements that look alike.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue referring to the difference between the images seen by the left and right eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue where the eyes turn inward to focus on a single object.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue where hazy or blurry objects are perceived as being farther away.

Relative size

A monocular cue where smaller objects are perceived as being farther away.

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where an object appears more detailed the closer it is.

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.

Interposition

A monocular cue where an object that blocks another object is perceived as being closer.

Change blindness

The failure to notice changes in an environment.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on a single stimulus within a noisy environment.

Perceptual constancy

Recognizing that an object remains the same despite changes in its sensory image, such as an open door still being recognized as a door.

Apparent movement

An illusion of motion created when separate lights turn on and off in sequence, making them look like a moving light.

Unintentional blindness

Failing to notice an unexpected stimulus in plain sight because attention is focused on something else.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar things.

Prototype

The best example of a concept, such as picturing a robin when thinking of a bird.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing schema while keeping the schema unchanged.

Accommodation

Changing an existing schema to fit new information.

Algorithms

A problem-solving approach that attempts all possible solutions systematically until the correct one is found.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts for problem-solving that are faster than algorithms but more prone to errors.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut where judgments are made based on stereotypes.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut where judgments are made based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem using past solutions that have worked before.

Priming

The process of influencing decisions through subtle cues.

Framing

The way an issue or choice is posed, altering decisions based on wording (such as stating a 90% success rate versus a 10% failure rate).

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past outcomes affect future results in completely random events.

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing with an endeavor simply because resources have already been invested into it.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes that help an individual plan, organize, and carry out goal-directed behaviors.

Creativity

Divergent thinking that generates many novel ideas rather than sticking to a single convergent solution.

Sensory memory

The initial storage of sensory information lasting a few milliseconds to a few seconds, characterized by a very large capacity.

Echoic memory

The sensory memory component dedicated to audio senses.

Iconic memory

The sensory memory component dedicated to visual senses.

Short-term memory

A memory store lasting 15 to 30 seconds with a typical capacity of $7 \pm 2$ items unless rehearsed.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information out loud or in your head to lengthen its duration in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new information with meaning, existing knowledge, or associations to transfer it into long-term memory.

Multi-store memory model

An older model proposing that memory progresses sequentially from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory via rehearsal.

Working memory model

A model expanding short-term memory featuring a central executive that directs audio data to the phonological loop and spatial data to the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

Levels of processing model

A memory framework showing that deeper processing improves retention, ranking semantic processing as superior to phonemic and structural processing.

Long-term potentiation

The biological mechanism for memory storage where two neurons fire together to strengthen synaptic connections, enabling long-term memory.

Explicit memory

Also known as declarative memory; includes semantic memory for facts and episodic memory for personal experiences.

Semantic memory

A division of explicit memory that stores facts and general knowledge.

Episodic memory

A division of explicit memory that stores personal experiences and events.

Implicit memory

Also known as nondeclarative memory; houses procedural memory for skills and habits, as well as priming effects.

Procedural memory

A branch of implicit memory dedicated to learned skills and automatic habits.

Perspective memory

Memory dedicated to retaining what you plan to do in the future.

Method of low key

A mnemonic device where a familiar place is envisioned and items to be remembered are mentally linked to specific physical locations along a route.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) on a list better than the middle items.

Primacy effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list.

Recency effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the end of a list.

Chunking

Organizing information into smaller, separate groups to make it easier to remember than a single long sequence.

Spacing effect

The finding that spreading learning out across time yields more durable memory encoding than cramming in a single sitting.

Long-term memory

A memory system that holds information from a couple of days up to an entire lifetime, possessing virtually unlimited capacity.

Autobiographical memory

Memory of one's own life composed of episodic and semantic memories.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to encode or form new long-term memories.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to recall previously learned information or past memories.

Alzheimer's

A progressive disease that slowly diminishes memory, thinking skills, and the capacity to carry out daily activities.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to remember events from infancy because the brain is not sufficiently developed until approximately ages three to five.

Memory retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from long-term memory and bringing it back into working memory.

Recall

Retrieving and bringing previously stored information into conscious awareness without any external retrieval cues.

Recognition

Identifying and confirming previously encountered information using retrieval cues.

Testing effect

Enhanced memory retrieval achieved through taking practice quizzes or tests on studied material.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thought processes to improve learning and memory retrieval.

Context-dependent memory

Improved memory retrieval when tested in the same environmental surroundings where the material was learned.

State-dependent memory

Improved memory retrieval when an individual is in the same physical state as during encoding.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall memories that match one's current emotional state.

Forgetting curve

A graph demonstrating that memory retention drops sharply during the first few days after learning before leveling off.

Encoding failure

The failure of information to transfer from short-term memory into long-term memory, resulting in forgetting.

Proactive interference

A retrieval disruption where previously learned material interferes with learning or recalling new information.

Retroactive interference

A retrieval disruption where newly learned material interferes with the memory of previously learned information.

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

An inadequate retrieval state where an individual feels on the verge of recalling a specific piece of information without being able to produce it.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of a memory caused by exposure to incorrect post-event information.

Source amnesia

Remembering factual information or an event while forgetting the origin, context, or person from whom it was learned.

Memory consolidation

The process that stabilizes fragile short-term memories into more permanent, stable long-term memories.

Imagination inflation

An increase in confidence that an event actually occurred after vividly imagining it.

Repression

A psychodynamic defense mechanism where distressing memories are unconsciously forgotten to protect the ego.

Charles Spearman's g

An early conceptualization of intelligence represented as a single general mental measure ($g$).

Psychometrics

The field of psychological measurement requiring that tests be standardized, valid, and reliable.

Reliability

The degree to which a test consistently produces the same results across repeated trials.

Validity

The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is designed to measure.

Construct validity

A test quality that checks whether an assessment accurately measures the theoretical concept it claims to evaluate.

Predictive validity

The ability of a test to accurately forecast future performance.

Stereotype threat

A decline in test performance caused by an individual being reminded of a negative stereotype regarding their group.

Stereotype lift

An increase in test performance caused by an individual being reminded of a positive stereotype regarding their group.

Flynn effect

The observed worldwide increase in average IQ scores over time driven by improved socioeconomic status, healthcare, and nutrition.

Achievement tests

Assessments designed to measure what an individual currently knows.

Aptitude tests

Assessments designed to predict how well an individual will perform in the future.

Fixed mindset

The belief that intelligence is predetermined at birth and cannot be developed.

Growth mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities can be cultivated through effort, learning, and participation.