HIST 1111 Exam Two Review

Comprehensive vocabulary review flashcards for HIST 1111 Exam Two covering the rise and core tenets of Islam, the Byzantine and Christian transformations under Constantine and Theodosius, the ancient Near Eastern to Hellenistic eras from Babylon to Greece, and the political trajectory of the Roman Republic and Empire.

Hadith

A written down statement from an eyewitness recording something that the Prophet Muhammad said or did; plural form is Hadiths.

Islam

An Arabic word meaning "submission," whose adherents are called Muslims ("one who submits"), an attitude demonstrated physically in the prayer posture at mosques.

Masjid

The Arabic term for a mosque, literally translating to "places of bowing down."

Mecca

The holiest city in Islam and hometown of Muhammad; location of the Kaaba (the focal point of Muslim prayer) and the destination for the Hajj pilgrimage.

Medina

The second holiest city in Islam, formerly named Yathrib before being renamed al-medinat al-nabi ("The city of the Prophet"); site of the first mosque, Muhammad's tomb, and the early Islamic community.

Hijra

The "immigration" or flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in AD 622, marking year one of the Islamic calendar.

Shia (Shi'ite)

The minority branch of Islam that sided with Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali, asserting that Ali was the rightful first caliph (successor) of Muhammad, although he ultimately served as the fourth.

Sunni

The majority branch of Islam, which acknowledges the legitimacy of all the first four caliphs as rightful successors to Muhammad.

Jerusalem (in Islam)

The third holiest city in Islam and an early focal point of prayer alongside Mecca; home to the Dome of the Rock (commemorating Muhammad's ascension to heaven) and the Al Aqsa ("the farthest") Mosque.

Chaldeans

Also known as the Babylonians; an empire that assisted in conquering Assyria, ruled by Nebuchadnezzar who captured Jerusalem and destroyed the First (Solomonic) Temple, before being defeated by Cyrus the Great.

Nebuchadnezzar

King of Babylon who conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the First Temple (Solomonic Temple).

Cyrus the Great

Founder of the Persian Empire and head of the Achaemenid Dynasty; defeated Nabonidus of Babylon and established a reputation for tolerant governance regarding conquered peoples, their sacred objects, and their temples.

Darius I

Persian Achaemenid king who crushed the Ionian Revolt, finalized the satrapy organizational system, constructed the Royal Road, and suffered defeat against mainland Greece at Marathon in 490 BC.

Royal Road

A major Persian highway established under Darius I spanning roughly 1600 miles from Susa in the east to Sardis in the west, utilizing a relay courier system for rapid communication.

Satrapy

A middle-tier administrative district within the Persian imperial structure (empire – satrapies – provinces), finalized throughout the realm during the reign of Darius I.

Democracy (Athens)

A Greek system of government translating to "people power" or "power in the hands of the people," granting free adult male citizens the right to vote in the Assembly.

Sparta

A militaristic Greek city-state governed through an oligarchy consisting of a dual monarchy, an advisory council, and limited democratic institutions.

Herodotus

Greek historian recognized as the "Father of History," best known for his detailed historical accounts of the Persian-Greek War.

Battle of Thermopylae

A Persian-Greek land engagement where 300 Spartans mounted a famed defense against invading Persian forces under Xerxes, resulting in a Persian victory.

Battle of Salamis

A decisive naval battle off the coast of Athens in which the Athenian navy gained the upper hand over Xerxes' fleet, creating a turning point in the Persian-Greek War.

Themistocles

Athenian statesman and naval commander who engineered the Greek victory at the Battle of Salamis, but was later ostracized into exile by Athens.

Xerxes

Persian king who prosecuted the war against Greece and brought Persia close to total conquest before being turned back after the defeat at Salamis.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who defeated Darius III, annexed the entire Persian Empire up to the Indus region, and ushered in the Hellenistic period before dying in Babylon.

Hellenism

A cultural syncretism marked by the fusion and influence of Greek culture with Near Eastern traditions following Alexander the Great's conquests, exemplified by artifacts such as the Rosetta Stone.

Ptolemies

A Greek ruling dynasty established in Egypt by Alexander the Great's general Ptolemy, which governed until the Roman conquest under its final monarch, Cleopatra.

Seleucids

A Hellenistic dynasty established by Seleucus that controlled Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, and later took possession of Palestine from the Ptolemies under Antiochus III.

Antiochus IV

Seleucid ruler notorious for enforcing religious intolerance against the Jewish community, sparking the armed Maccabean/Hasmonean revolt.

Hasmonean Dynasty

A Jewish dynasty created in the wake of the Maccabean rebellion against Seleucid religious persecution, ruling Judea until Roman intervention in the era of Herod the Great; celebrated by Hanukkah.

Roman Republic

The representative system of Roman government created in 509 BC following the expulsion of the Etruscan monarchy, enduring until Octavian established the Roman Empire.

Roman Senate

A central governing body in ancient Rome that exercised substantial political influence, initially monopolized by patricians before plebeians gained political access.

Twelve Tables

The first public codification of written Roman laws, displayed to defend the civic rights of plebeians during the domestic class struggle known as the Conflict of the Orders.

Patrician

A member of the wealthy, land-owning noble citizen class in ancient Roman society.

Plebeian

A member of the common citizen class in ancient Rome, distinct from the patrician aristocracy.

Punic Wars

A series of conflicts fought between the Roman Republic and Carthage from the mid-200s to mid-100s BC over control of Sicily, culminating in Rome's destruction of Carthage and major territorial expansion.

Carthage

A Phoenician colony located in North Africa (modern Tunisia) known for child sacrifice, which became Rome's chief rival until its total destruction in the Punic Wars.

Gaul

The region of modern France subdued by Julius Caesar while acting as governor, serving as his military and political power base before he seized absolute power in Rome as dictator for life.

Battle of Actium

A pivotal naval battle in 31 BC where Octavian defeated the allied fleets of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, precipitating their suicides, the annexation of Egypt, and the dawn of the Roman Empire.

Octavian (Augustus)

The grand-nephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar who emerged as Rome's first emperor, ushering in the Pax Romana and adopting the preferred title Princeps Civitatis.

Pax Romana

A period of "Roman Peace" and political stability lasting approximately 200 years, beginning under the reign of Octavian (Augustus).

Princeps Civitatis

A Latin title meaning "the number 1 citizen," preferred by Octavian to frame his imperial authority within Roman republican tradition.

Roman Citizenship

A legal status extended by the Roman state, which, according to historians Judge and Langdon, helped maintain the Pax Romana by assimilating and neutralizing potential political threats.

Messiah

A title meaning "Anointed One," linked to Jewish expectations of a kingly deliverer from David's lineage to depose Roman rule; in Christian belief, Jesus reinterpreted this as a Suffering Messiah establishing a spiritual kingdom through his sacrificial death.

Second Temple

The refurbished Jewish center of worship in Jerusalem enhanced under Herod the Great, which was destroyed by Rome during a Jewish revolt and has never been replaced.

Covenant (in Early Christian Context)

A twofold theological framework consisting of the Davidic Covenant (promising a royal descendant to rule) and the New Covenant inaugurated by Jesus Christ's sacrificial death to replace the Mosaic Covenant.

Diocletian

Roman emperor who led an empire-wide persecution of Christians around AD 300, ordering churches leveled, scriptures burned, leaders jailed, and subjects compelled to make non-Christian sacrifices.

Constantine

Roman emperor who secured Western rule at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 following a supernatural vision, legalized Christianity, established imperial unity, and founded Constantinople.

Battle of Milvian Bridge

The 312 military engagement where Constantine defeated his rival Maxentius to consolidate control of the Western Roman Empire after experiencing a divine encounter.

Constantinople

The Byzantine capital founded by Constantine at the former site of Byzantium (modern Istanbul), serving as the imperial center from the 300s until its fall in 1453.

Church of the Holy Sepulcher

A major church complex built in Jerusalem by Constantine at a site identified by his mother Helen, traditionally held to be the site of Jesus' crucifixion, burial, and resurrection.

Helen

The Christian mother of Emperor Constantine who traveled to the Holy Land to establish churches and is credited with discovering what was regarded as the True Cross in Jerusalem.

Church of the Nativity

A historic church in Bethlehem founded by Constantine's mother Helen, built upon the site traditionally identified as the birthplace of Jesus.

Egeria

A Christian pilgrim who documented her travels to sacred sites in the Holy Land around the era when Christianity transitioned into the official state religion of the empire.

Theodosius

Byzantine emperor who declared Christianity the sole official state religion of the Roman Empire in AD 380, supplanting traditional Roman paganism.

Caesaropapism

A political and ecclesiastical system in the Byzantine Empire where the emperor ruled concurrently as both the supreme secular sovereign and the spiritual head of the church.

Synod of Rome

A church council held in AD 382 that officially recognized the canon of the Bible, including the 27 books of the New Testament.

Athanasius of Alexandria

Early Christian church bishop whose canonical list contains the oldest known reference identifying the precise 27 books that form the modern New Testament.

Council of Nicaea

An ecumenical council convened and presided over by Constantine to resolve theological discord, affirming the complete divinity of Jesus Christ and condemning Arianism.

Arius

A Christian priest judged a heretic at the Council of Nicaea for preaching that Jesus was a created entity rather than divine, thereby rejecting Jesus' role as a saving Messiah.