Research Methods Exam 2: Chapters 5–7 Statistics, Field Research, and Correlational Designs

What is the main focus of Chapter 5?

Statistical analysis, describing distributions, and making inferences from samples.

What typical question is asked in Chapter 5?

Is an observed difference or relationship convincing statistically?

What is a key caution regarding statistical decisions?

Statistical significance is not the same as practical importance.

What does Chapter 6 focus on?

Field research, including naturalistic observation and case studies.

What is the typical question in Chapter 6?

What happens in real life, and what patterns or contingencies can be observed?

What is a key caution in field research?

Observation alone usually cannot establish cause and effect.

What is the focus of Chapter 7?

Correlational and differential research, measuring relationships or comparing preexisting groups.

What typical question is asked in Chapter 7?

Are variables related? Do existing groups differ?

What is a key caution regarding correlational research?

Measured variables are not manipulated, so causation remains uncertain.

What are individual differences in psychological research?

The ways people differ from one another and how the same person can differ across occasions.

Why are statistics important in psychology?

They help determine whether patterns in data are stronger than ordinary variation.

What do descriptive statistics do?

They organize and summarize the data collected, providing insights into shape, center, and spread.

What is a frequency distribution?

A summary of how often scores or categories occur in a dataset.

What does a positively skewed distribution indicate?

Many low scores with fewer high scores, pulling the mean above the median.

What does a negatively skewed distribution indicate?

Many high scores with fewer low scores, pulling the mean below the median.

What is central tendency?

A measure that describes the center or typical value of a distribution.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Mode, median, and mean.

What is the mode?

The most frequently occurring score or category.

What is the median?

The middle score after values are ordered.

What is the mean?

The arithmetic average of scores.

What does standard deviation measure?

The typical spread of scores around the mean.

What does a small standard deviation indicate?

Scores cluster close to the mean, indicating consistency.

What does a large standard deviation indicate?

Scores are spread out, making the mean less representative.

What is the correlation coefficient range?

From -1.00 to +1.00.

What does a correlation coefficient of +1.00 indicate?

A perfect positive linear relationship.

What does a correlation coefficient of 0.00 indicate?

No linear relationship between variables.

What is the importance of understanding variability?

It helps to understand how spread out scores are and the consistency of data.

What is variance?

The average of the squared deviations from the mean.

What does a correlation near -1.00 indicate?

A strong negative linear relationship.

What does a correlation of 0.00 imply?

No linear relationship; a curved relationship might still exist.

What is the significance of the sign in a correlation coefficient?

The sign indicates direction; the absolute size indicates strength.

What is a population in research?

The full group of people or cases the researcher wants to understand.

What is a sample?

A subset of the population that is actually observed or measured.

What is sampling error?

The natural difference between a sample result and the population value.

What is the null hypothesis (H0)?

It usually states that there is no difference between population means or no effect/relationship being tested.

What does a p-value indicate?

It helps determine whether to reject the null hypothesis based on the significance threshold (alpha).

What is a Type I error?

Rejecting a true null hypothesis; concluding that a difference/effect exists when it does not.

What is a Type II error?

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis; missing a real difference/effect.

What does a t-test compare?

Mean differences between two groups.

What does ANOVA test?

Mean differences across two or more groups.

What is statistical power?

The sensitivity of a statistical test to detect a real population effect or difference.

How does sample size affect statistical power?

Increasing sample size generally increases power because estimates become more precise.

What is effect size?

It describes the magnitude of a difference or relationship.

What is the difference between statistical significance and practical significance?

Statistical significance indicates compatibility with the null model; practical significance assesses the real-world impact of an effect.

What is field research?

Studies behavior in real-world contexts rather than controlled laboratory settings.

What is naturalistic observation?

A method of field research that involves observing subjects in their natural environment.

What is archival research?

A method of field research that involves analyzing existing data collected for other purposes.

What is a case study?

An in-depth examination of a single individual or group.

What is the role of low-constraint research?

It allows for the observation of natural behavior with fewer restrictions.

What does it mean to reject the null hypothesis?

The sample result meets the statistical criterion for evidence against the null.

What does failing to reject the null hypothesis imply?

It does not prove there is no difference; the study may lack power to detect a real difference.

What is the significance threshold (alpha)?

The predetermined level at which the null hypothesis will be rejected, commonly set at .05 or .01.

What is the relationship between Type I and Type II errors?

Type I error is rejecting a true null, while Type II error is failing to reject a false null.

What is the purpose of statistical reporting?

To present data objectively, report both supporting and non-supporting results, and acknowledge limitations.

What is the importance of inspecting a scatterplot?

To identify potential nonlinear relationships that a correlation coefficient may miss.

What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Descriptive statistics summarize data, while inferential statistics use sample data to draw conclusions about populations.

What is the core idea of naturalistic observation?

To observe naturally occurring behavior in its usual environment.

Provide an example of naturalistic observation.

Observing how students use a campus study space without assigning them to behaviors.

What is a main caution regarding naturalistic observation?

Behavior may be unpredictable; the observer may not know in advance which behaviors matter.

What is the core idea of a case study?

To examine a particular individual, small unit, or case in depth, with relatively few constraints.

Give an example of a case study.

A detailed study of one unusual case or one person's development and circumstances.

What is a main caution regarding case studies?

A single case can provide rich detail but is not automatically representative of a larger population.

When are naturalistic observation and case studies useful?

When first studying a research area and the important behaviors are not yet known.

What is unobtrusive observation?

Behavior is observed or measured in a way that is not obvious to the people being measured.

What is the benefit of unobtrusive observation?

It is often nonreactive because participants may not change behavior in response to being measured.

What is obtrusive observation?

Participants know they are being observed or measured.

What is a potential drawback of obtrusive observation?

It can be reactive: awareness of observation may change behavior.

What is participant observation?

The researcher observes while participating in the situation.

What ethical considerations arise with unobtrusive measures?

Participants may not have a direct opportunity to refuse, and records may contain sensitive information.

What is a representative sample?

A sample that resembles the population the researcher wants to describe.

What is a limitation of low-constraint research regarding representativeness?

Samples are often small and nonrandom, making broad generalization risky.

What does poor replicability in low-constraint research refer to?

Replication requires procedures to be described clearly and followed consistently.

What is an ex post facto fallacy?

It occurs when an observed contingency is interpreted as proving a causal connection.

What are observer and experimenter effects?

They refer to how the researcher's skill and presence can influence participants' responses.

What is measurement reactivity?

When people behave differently because they know they are being observed or measured.

What ethical principles should be considered in low-constraint research?

Informed consent, confidentiality, sensitivity of data, and IRB consultation.

What is the significance of IRB review in research?

It provides guidance on protecting participants and assessing ethical acceptability.

What is the general rule for sampling in research?

Sample a broad range of relevant participants, situations, and occasions whenever feasible.

What can interesting observations lead researchers to do?

They may tempt researchers to make claims stronger than the evidence supports.

What is the role of hypotheses in naturalistic observation?

Observations are useful for generating hypotheses that can be tested in later studies.

What does the term 'going beyond the data' refer to?

It refers to making claims that are stronger than what the evidence supports.

What is the importance of considering alternative explanations in research?

Interpretations should consider multiple explanations and relevant information beyond one observation.

What is the main caution regarding the use of case studies?

They may not be representative of broader populations.

What is the purpose of unobtrusive measures?

To reduce reactivity and observe behavior without participants' awareness.

What is a key benefit of case studies?

They provide detailed context that brief group-level measures might miss.

What distinguishes unobtrusive measures from obtrusive measures?

Unobtrusive measures are not obvious to participants, while obtrusive measures are known to participants.

What are the five limitations of research mentioned?

Poor representativeness, poor replicability, ex post facto causal fallacy, observer limitations, and going beyond the data.

What ethical considerations must be taken into account in research?

Consent, confidentiality, sensitivity, and IRB review.

What does correlational research quantify?

The strength and direction of relationships among measured variables without manipulating them.

Can correlational research establish causation?

No, because it cannot determine the direction of influence or account for third variables.

What is differential research?

Differential research compares two or more preexisting groups on one or more measured variables.

When is differential research typically used?

When manipulating an independent variable is impossible, impractical, or unethical.

What is the main concern in correlational research?

Directionality and third variables.

What is the typical question asked in correlational research?

Are X and Y related?

What is the main concern in differential research?

Confounds between preexisting groups.

What is the typical question asked in differential research?

Does Group A differ from Group B?

What does experimental research manipulate?

The independent variable.

What is the typical question asked in experimental research?

Does changing X produce a change in Y?

What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research?

Cross-sectional research compares different participants at one time, while longitudinal research follows the same participants over time.

What are cohort effects?

Cohort effects occur when groups differ due to historical experiences rather than age.