VCE Psychology 3/4: Key Science Skills Exam and SAC Revision単語カード

Aim

The overall purpose of an investigation — what the researcher intends to investigate.

Research question

The specific question the investigation is designed to answer.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the expected relationship between the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).

Prediction

A statement of the expected outcome of an investigation.

Hypothesis formula

It is hypothesised that [population] exposed to [IV condition] will show [predicted direction] in [operationalised DV] compared with [other condition].

Independent variable (IV)

The variable deliberately manipulated or changed by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable measured to determine whether the IV had an effect.

Controlled variable

A variable deliberately kept constant across conditions.

Extraneous variable

Any variable other than the IV that could affect the DV. It is a potential problem.

Confounding variable

An extraneous variable that systematically varies with the IV and affects the DV, creating an alternative explanation for the results.

Operationalisation

Defining exactly how a variable is manipulated or measured so it is observable, measurable and replicable.

Experimental group

Receives the treatment/manipulation of interest.

Control group

Does not receive the treatment, or receives a comparison/baseline condition.

Within-subjects design

The same participants complete every condition.

Between-subjects design

Different participants complete different conditions.

Mixed design

Combines within-subjects and between-subjects elements.

Controlled experiment

Manipulates one or more IVs and measures a DV while controlling other variables. May include a control group.

Correlational study

Observes and records variables without manipulating them to determine whether an association exists.

Case study

Detailed investigation of a particular person, activity, behaviour, event or problem in a real or hypothetical context.

Fieldwork

Observation/investigation in a real-world setting beyond the classroom.

Literature review

Collates and analyses secondary data from previous research to answer a question or provide background.

Population

The entire group the researcher wants to draw conclusions about.

Sample

The smaller group selected from the population to participate.

Representative sample

A sample whose characteristics reasonably reflect the target population.

Random sampling

Every member of the target population has a chance/opportunity of being selected.

Stratified sampling

Population is divided into relevant subgroups (strata), and participants are sampled from each subgroup.

Convenience sampling

Participants are selected because they are easy/readily available.

Random allocation

Participants already in the sample are assigned to experimental conditions by chance.

Primary data

Data generated first-hand by the researcher for the investigation.

Secondary data

Existing data generated by someone else.

Quantitative data

Numerical data.

Qualitative data

Descriptive/non-numerical data.

Objective data

Observable/measurable information with minimal personal interpretation.

Subjective data

Data based on a person's own perceptions or self-report.

Mean

Sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.

Median

Middle score when ordered.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score.

Standard deviation (SD)

Measure of variability/spread around the mean.

Percentage change

Change expressed relative to the original value: (new - original) ÷ original × 100.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value.

Precision

How closely repeated measurement values agree with each other.

Repeatability

Closeness of results when the same quantity is measured repeatedly under the same conditions.

Reproducibility

Closeness of results when measurements are repeated under changed conditions.

Measurement validity

Whether a measure actually measures what it is intended to measure.

Internal validity

Whether the investigation actually investigates what it sets out/claims to investigate.

External validity

Whether findings can be applied/generalised to similar people in another setting.

Random error

Unpredictable variation in the measurement process that produces a spread of readings.

Systematic error

A consistent error that shifts measurements away from the true value in the same direction.

Personal error

Mistake, miscalculation or observer mistake made while conducting research.

Uncertainty

Lack of exact knowledge about a measured value or conclusion.

Outlier

A result that lies a long way from the other values.

Contradictory data

Data that conflicts with other evidence or the expected pattern.

Incomplete data

Missing information, such as unanswered questions or absent observations.

Beneficence

Commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms.

Non-maleficence

Avoid causing harm; any harm should not be disproportionate to the potential benefits.

Integrity

Search for knowledge honestly and report all sources and results, whether favourable or unfavourable.

Justice

Ensure fair consideration of competing claims and fair distribution of burdens and benefits.

Respect

Give due regard to welfare, autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage.

Informed consent

Participants understand the nature, purpose and potential risks before agreeing; written consent should be obtained.

Voluntary participation

Participants freely choose to participate without coercion or pressure.

Withdrawal rights

Participants may discontinue during or after the study without penalty, potentially including removal of their data.

Confidentiality

Protect personal information and anonymity of individual results; remove identifying details.

Deception

Permissible only when necessary because knowing the true purpose could alter behaviour and validity; it is discouraged and must be justified.

Debriefing

At the end, explain the true aim, results/conclusions where appropriate, address questions and provide support so no lasting harm remains. Essential when deception was used.

Scientific evidence

Information obtained through systematic investigation/data collection and evaluated using appropriate scientific processes.

Opinion

A belief or judgement that may not be supported by scientific evidence.

Anecdote

A personal account or individual experience. Useful as an observation, but weak as scientific evidence on its own.

Limitation

A feature or constraint of the study that restricts interpretation, validity or generalisation.

Limitation formula

Problem effect on results/validity why it matters.

Improvement formula

Problem specific realistic fix what the fix improves.

Graph

A visual representation of data.

X-axis

Independent variable (or categories/conditions).

Y-axis

Dependent variable.

Bar chart

Comparing categories/conditions (e.g. mean recall under two conditions).

Line graph

Showing change across a continuous variable or time.

Scatterplot

Showing association/correlation between two measured variables.

Positive correlation

Variables tend to increase together.

Negative correlation

One variable tends to increase as the other decreases.

No clear pattern

Little/no correlation.

Data-analysis formula

State the pattern/trend quote relevant numbers compare conditions/groups explain what the pattern means for the hypothesis.

Conclusion checklist

Answer the research question state whether the hypothesis was supported refer to results introduce no new information.

Evaluate internal validity

Define internal validity identify a study feature explain whether it strengthens/weakens confidence that the IV caused the DV change.

Evaluate external validity

Define external validity discuss sample/setting explain how well findings can generalise.

Identify an extraneous variable

Name a specific uncontrolled variable explain how it could affect the DV.

Suggest an improvement

Identify problem give a realistic change explain what improves (e.g. validity, precision, representativeness).

Discuss an ethical issue

Name concept/guideline explain application/violation in context suggest amendment if asked.

Analyse data

State trend use exact values compare connect to hypothesis/aim.

Correlation vs causation

No IV manipulation / variables only measured possible third variables correlation cannot establish cause-and-effect.

IV vs DV

Manipulated vs measured.

Extraneous vs confounding

Could affect DV vs actually provides an alternative explanation for the result.

Random sampling vs random allocation

Selects the sample vs assigns the sample to conditions.

Within vs between subjects

Same participants in all conditions vs different participants in different conditions.

Accuracy vs precision

Closeness to true value vs closeness of repeated measurements to each other.

Repeatability vs reproducibility

Same conditions vs changed conditions.

Random vs systematic error

Affects precision vs affects accuracy.

Internal vs external validity

Credibility of the study conclusion vs generalisability.

Qualitative vs quantitative

Descriptive/non-numerical vs numerical.