PSY101 - Exam #1

Chapters 1-2, 13, 15-17

Psychology

Scientific study of mind and behavior

What are the three ways Psychology is broken down?

Science: Employs systematic, objective methods of observation
Mind: Examines conscious and unconscious processes like divided attention or implicit memory
Behavior Any behavior that can be observed, recorded, and measured

Scientific Method

Logical, systematic processes used to explore observations, and new hypotheses through experimentation
Four steps:

1. identifying questions of interest

2. formulating an explanation

3. carrying out research that is designed to support or refute the explanation

4. communicating the findings.

Wilhelm Wundt

1832 - 1920; England

Headed first modern psych lab in 1879, Leipzig, Germany

Known for structuralism and introspection

Structuralism

Wundt’s central perspective; Focused on discovering fundamental components of perceptions, consciousness, emotions, etc.

Broke down conscious experiences into smallest parts to better understand the mind’s “structure”

Introspection

Process of internal perception and looking within oneself to assess thoughts, feelings, etc.

Criticisms of Introspsection

Too subjective, psychologists argued Wundt’s approach wasn’t a scientific technique b/c there was no way to confirm accuracy of others’ introspections

Edward Titchener

1867 - 1927, England

• Wundt’s student who popularized his theories in the US (coined “structuralism” and “emapthy”)

• Extended approach to all mental activity (rather than just sensation + feeling)

William James

1842 - 1910, America

• Focused on the functions of specific mental activities in the world (Functionalism)

• Established first APA and journal in psychology

Functionalism

• Belief that certain practices and behaviors are better suited than others for certain tasks

  • We change behaviors based on which is “better adapted”

• Heavily influenced by Darwinism

Behaviorism

• Began 1912 → Lasted as major school of thought til 1960s

• Focuses on measurable behavior rather than internal mental states

  • Objective science; Resulted from the environmental aspect of Functionalism

Ivan Pavlov

1849 - 1936

• Association + Classical Conditioning

• Focused on involuntary physiological reactions to external stimuli

Classical Conditoning

Unconscious learning process where previously neutral signal is paired with a natural reflex to create a learned response

John B. Watson

1878 - 1958, American

• Applied Pavlov’s ideas to human behavior → Argued that all human behavior is learned according to environmental stimuli

• rejected unconscious thought entirely

B.F. Skinner

1904 - 1990

• Operant Conditioning + Learning through consequence

  • Reinforcement vs Punishment

• Focused on voluntary, goal-directed behaviors

Gestalt Psychology

• Emphasizes how perception is organized into meaning

• Analyzes the “whole” rather than separate perceptions

  • “The whole is different from the sum of its parts”

Sigmund Freud

1856 - 1939; Austrian

• Developed Psych through clinical practice

• Put psychology on the map

  • His research moved psychology from an academic discipline to an applied discipline in therapy

Psychoanalysis Theory

• Freud’s central perspective that emphasizes importance of unconscious motives/conflicts in determining behavior

• Theory was introduced through Interpretation of Dreams (text from 1900)

Id

• Unconscious, impulsive, egocentric

• Strives to satisfy basic sexual/aggressive desires

• Pleasure principle/Instant gratification

Ego

• Executive, rational, conscious thought

• Mediates between Id, Ego and reality to make decisions that satisfy each

Superego

• Moral component of the brain

  • Presented internalized ideals dictated by social environment

• Social monitorization

Experimental Approach

• Higher Internal Validity

• Most effective + demonstrates cause-and-effect relationship

• Manipulates 1+ independent variable under controlled conditions to determine effect on dependent variable

Independent Variable

Variable that is actively manipulated to demonstrate its impact on other variables

Dependent Variable

Variable hypothesized to be affected by IV

Behavioral Variable

Observable responses

Stimulus Variable

Any change that can be manipulated observed to influence an organism's behavior

Correlation Method

• Non-experimental research that measures 2+ variables to understand how they relate to each other

• No manipulation → No cause-and-effect

Case-Study

• Powerful, but subjective

• In-depth study of one individual, group, rare event in its real-life environment

• Should be able to be applied generally

Naturalistic

• Lower Internal Validity

• Researches behavior as it naturally occurs

• Significant lack of control

Mean/Average

Sum of all / Divided by total #

Median

Halfway between data values–score at 50th percentile

Mode

Most frequent value

Social Psychology

• Study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations

• Looks at interaction between environment (social factors) and individual (behavior)

  
  

Social Perceptions

Process by which we understand and know other people

• How we view others/ourselves according to others

Attribution Theory

Set of theories that describe how people explain causes of behavior

Situational Attribution Theory

Attributions that explain behavior in terms of circumstances

Persona/Dispositional Attribution Theory

Attributions that explain behavior in terms of internal factors (personality, traits, etc.)

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate impact of personal causes of behavior + overlook role of situational factors

Lee Ross Experiment

Used a TV quiz and separated participants into Game Show Hosts, Contestants and Spectators.

Game Show Hosts made questions → Contestants did poorly → Spectators + Contestants themselves rated GSH intelligence higher and their own lower

Primacy Effect

Argues that first impressions weigh heavily and are highly resistant to change

Cognitive Confirmation Bias

Argues that first impressions guide the way we interpret later contradictory information

Ash Experiment 1946

One group informed subject was intelligent, industrious stubborn, envious
Other group informed subject was envious, stubborn, industrious, intelligent (opposite order)

Result: First group found subject more favorable; Other group did not even with new information saying otherwise

Darley and Gross Experiment 1983

Participants asked to evaluate academic potential of 4th grader Hanah
½ told that she came from upper-middle class home (High Expectancy Group)
½ told that she was from a rundown neighborhood with poorly educated parents (Low Expectancy Group)

Result: Objective performance was average but HEG thought she performed higher while LEG saw her as aggressive and low performance

Conformity

Tendency to alter behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms

Milgram Expeirment 1969

Subjects were told that they were studying effects of punishment on learning and that each time a learner made a mistake, the subject had to deliver a shock

Result: Despite pain that subjects thought they were inflicting, 65% would have delivered highest level of punishment to learners

Milgram’s Factors of Disobedience

1. Authority

   1. When he moved experiment location from uni to city office + replaced experiment with ordinary person, obedience dropped

2. Victim: Subjects and learners were detached due to lack of face-to-face interaction

3. Situation: Who assumes responsibility for actions impacts obedience

Personality Psychology

Study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Perspectives: Freudian/Psychoanalaytic, Humanistic, Trait

Psychodynamic Perspective

Id, Ego, Superego + Defense Mechanisms

Defense Mechanism

Unconscious strategies employed by the Ego to reduce anxiety

Repression

Chronic repression → Serious mental and physical consequences

Unconscious mechanism employed by ego to keep disturbing thoughts from becoming conscious

Denial

Blocking external events from awareness

Situation becomes too much the handle → Refusal to experience it

Projection

Individual attribution of own thoughts to another person

Displacement

Satisfying impulse with a substitute that’s less threatening

Regression

Movement back in psychological time when faced with stress

Sublimation

Satisfying impulse with a substitute in a socially acceptable way

Ex: Sports, exercise, drawing, etc.

Psychosexual Stages

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

Oral

0-18 Months

Pleasure centers on mouth (sucking, chewing, biting)

Anal

18-36 months

Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder

Coping w demands for control/potty training is source of conflict

Phallic

3-6 Years

Pleasure zones is genitals

Coping w incestuous feelings (Oedipal complex)

Latency

6 to Puberty

Dormant sexual feelings

Concentration on school and making friends of same sex

Genital

Puberty Onward
Maturation of sexual interests

Id is very active, Ego is coping between Id sex drive and Superego social limits

Free Association

Patient relaxes and says whatever comes to mind; Psychologist guides the person’s thoughts to more complex conversations

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach

Seeks to identify inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of blots

Humanistic Perspective

Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow
Suggests that all living organisms have a need for self-actualization

More philosophical and views humanity in an optimistic way

Self-Actualization

Motivation to fulfill one’s potential

Unconditional Positive Regard

Receive love and affection from others regardless of what you do

Conditional Positive Regard

Only receive love and affection when you please others

Prevents feelings of fulfillment → No self-actualization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Believed that self-actualization was achieved in hierarchical order:

1. Physiological - Food, shelter, warmth

2. Safety - Security, stability, freedom from fear

3. Belonging/Love - Friends, family, spouse

4. Self-Esteem - Achievement, mastery, recognition

5. Self-Actualization - Pursue inner talent, creativity, fulfillment

Trait Perspective

Predicts behavior based on where a person falls along trait continuum

Assessment based: Introvert v Extrovert and Stable v Unstable Traits

Traits

Stable, consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that vary across individuals and persist over time

Cardinal Trait

A single, dominant and overarching characteristic that directs most of a person’s activities

Central Trait

Core, foundational characteristics that make up your general personality and appear across most situations

Secondary Trait

Context-dependent, situational preferences or attitudes that appear only in specific circumstances

DSM/Diagnostic Statistical Manual

Reference guide for evaluating patients, lists key criteria and symptoms for disorders

Highly criticized

Schizophrenia

Serious mental disorder that involves gross distortions of thought → loss of reality

Difficult to distinguish from schizoaffective disorder and elements of bipolar/depression

Symptoms are clear and consistent over time; Must be medically treated for any clinical effect → Stabilize neurosystem

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Incoherent Thoughts, Delusions, Hallucinations, Disturbances of Affect/Mood

Incoherent Thoughts

Exhibit illogical and repetitive statements/thoughts (mental disorganization, confusion)

Executive Dysfunction is high (planning, decision making, logical reasoning)

• Signifies frontal lobe impairment

Delusions

Delusions of grandeur

• Inflated sense of self (think they’re superman, napoleon, etc.) → Erratic behavior (ex: jumping out of window to “fly”)

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences that occur in absence of stimulation

Auditory hallucinations common

Often hear voices speaking to them

Disturbances of Affect/Mood

Often have flattened emotions, sit still for hours and have blank face

Avoid eye contact and show little interest in anything

Others may over expression emotions that are inappropriate for the situation

Catatonic State

Absolute lack or cease in movement, speech, responsiveness

Biological Explanation of Schizophrenia

Identical twins have larger risk of developing if other twin has it

Can be inherited if parent has it (~50% chance)

Typically affects men mid-20s and women late 20s

Pharmacology Treatments for Schizophrenia

Drugs that block dopamine receptors/Reduce release of dopamine

• Schizophrenia results when excess of dopamine in the brain

Neurological Disorder

Medical condition that affects central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

• Schizophrenia can be labeled as such due to changes in brain structure, chemical signaling (neurotransmitters), and neural network

Major Affective Disorder

Condition characterized by prolonged emotional extremes range from mania to severe depression

Unipolar Depression

Mood disorder characterized by deep sadness and despair

Severe Symptoms of Unipolar Depression

Diminished pleasure/interest in food, sex, other joys of life

Intense feelings of worthlessness, guilt, self-blame

Fatigue, slowness, lack of energy

Difficulties in sleeping, concentrating on work, making decisions

Recurring thoughts of suicide and death

Onset of Depression

Rarely occurs before adolescence

Risk of developing increases with age

More prevalent in females than males

• May overinflated be due to environmental factors (males typically encouraged to mask emotions to be more “masculine”)

Seasonal Affective Disorder

Form of depression that occurs only during fall and winter months with less daylight

People become drowsy, withdrawn, eat more, crave carbs, gain weight, lose interest in sex, falter in social relationships

Can be treated with UV light and melatonin

• Suggests its an endogenous depression (produced within themselves/organism rather than externally)

Biological Model Theory

Argues that depression occurs due to low levels of 5-HT within limbic system

• Lack of serotonin/dopamine in the brain

Looks at antidepressants as effective treatment

Many with depression have higher levels of cortisol

• Suggests that psych factors cannot be ignored

Tricyclic Antidepressants

Inhibits reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin

Most common are clomipramine, amitriptyline, imipramine

Side effects: Dizziness, confusion, hypertension + blocks norepinephrine (essential for regulating stress responses)

• Make them less favorable

Specific Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)

Inhibits reuptake of serotonin without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters—most common is Prozac, Celexa, and Paxil

Serotonin/Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor (SNRI)

Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine.

They have fewer side-effects than TCA drugs.

The most common ismilnacipide, duloxetine, and venlafaxine.

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOI)

Blocks monoamine oxidase which breakdown neutroansmitters + tyramine (regulates blood pressure)

Must be used with caution, LAST line of defense

Side effects: Dietary restrictions from foods high in tyramine (aged cheese, cured meats, fermented goods), weight gain → Dangerous spike in blood pressure (hypertensive crisis)

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

Brief electrical shock applied to the head

Results in electrical seizure

Meant to stimulate the brain

Used therapeutically to alleviate severe depression

LAST LAST line of defense

Bipolar Disorder

Mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of mania/depression

Referred to as manic depression

Often have difficulty maintaining medication use + sometimes higher substance abuse rates

Is not a disorder that’s cured, needs heavy maintenance and treatment

Manic State

Euphoric state of mind and filled w energy, self-esteem, overconfidence

Lithium

Chemical element (lithium carbonate) most commonly used treatment for BPD

Anxiety

General feeling of apprehension, can be accompanied by other symptoms

Becomes major concern when it affects quality of life

Common symptoms of Anxiety

Pounding heart, trembling, dizziness, light headedness, shortness of breath, upset stomach, diarrhea