APUSH Unit 3 IDs

The rapid reorganization of manufacturing between 1790 and 1860, characterized by merchant-capitalists building factories and adopting steam and water power. It fundamentally transformed the American economy from an agrarian artisan base into an industrial powerhouse.

Industrial Revolution

A manufacturing technique that split production into discrete, repetitive steps performed by low-skilled wageworkers rather than a single artisan. It undermined traditional artisan independence and depressed worker wages across emerging industries.

division of labor

A British mechanic who memorized Richard Arkwright's textile machinery designs and emigrated to America in 1789 to construct the nation's first cotton-spinning mill. His technological importation successfully catalyzed the American Industrial Revolution in New England.

Samuel Slater

A labor model pioneered by the Boston Manufacturing Company in the 1820s that housed all textile manufacturing operations under one roof using young farm women as workers. It provided New England women with independent monetary wages before being largely replaced by impoverished Irish immigrants.

Waltham-Lowell System

Cutting and shaping machines crafted by American mechanics that manufactured standardized metal components with high precision. They enabled manufacturers to mass-produce complex agricultural machinery with interchangeable parts.

machine tools

An American inventor who built the cotton gin in 1793 to separate seeds from short-staple cotton and later manufactured muskets with interchangeable parts. His inventions drastically accelerated the expansion of the Cotton Kingdom and fueled the domestic slave trade.

Eli Whitney

An ideology based on craft production that celebrated small independent producers equal to one another and dedicated to the public good. It was heavily challenged by industrial wagework, prompting workers to advocate for labor rights and form early trade unions.

artisan republicanism

The economic belief that the price of a commodity should reflect the quantity of labor required to manufacture it rather than market supply and demand. It was widely cited by trade unionists striking for higher wages and ten-hour workdays during the 1830s.

labor theory of value

The dramatic expansion of commerce and market transactions between 1820 and 1860 resulting from new transportation networks and western agrarian integration. It integrated regional economies across the United States into a unified national commercial network.

Market Revolution

A 364-mile artificial waterway constructed by New York State between 1817 and 1825 connecting Albany on the Hudson River with Buffalo on Lake Erie. It dramatically lowered transport costs and transformed New York City into the nation's primary commercial seaport.

Erie Canal

A Virginia inventor who mass-produced steam-powered mechanical reapers in Chicago to harvest expanding wheat fields. His invention accelerated the agricultural development of the Midwest and deepened economic ties between western farmers and eastern markets.

Cyrus McCormick

A 19th-century cultural ideal celebrating individuals who achieved financial success and upward mobility through industry, sobriety, and personal discipline. It served as a core psychological and moral value for the newly emerging middle class during the Market Revolution.

self-made man

A network of Protestant reform organizations created in the 1820s to restore Christian morality by curbing alcohol, prostitution, and Sabbath desecration. It established a powerful framework for middle-class moral policing and organized social reform.

Benevolent Empire

A preeminent Congregational minister who co-founded the American Temperance Society and defended Protestant institutions against Catholic immigration. He provided crucial intellectual leadership for the Benevolent Empire and shaped antebellum religious reform.

Lyman Beecher

Revivalist preachers who led intense religious revivals along the Erie Canal, pioneering emotional conversion techniques and urban Sunday schools. They popularized the doctrine of moral free agency and heavily inspired antebellum evangelical reform movements.

Charles Grandison Finney and Lydia Finney

The theological doctrine holding that God had made humans free moral agents capable of choosing salvation and perfecting society. It effectively replaced traditional Calvinist predestination and fueled the humanitarian reform crusades of the Second Great Awakening.

moral free agency

A reform organization founded in 1826 that deployed revivalist tactics to persuade citizens to take a formal pledge of total abstinence from alcohol. It became the most successful and widespread social reform movement of the Antebellum era.

American Temperance Society

Anti-immigrant political associations formed by native-born American Protestants opposing Catholic immigration from Ireland and Germany. They fueled intense political polarization, organized street gangs, and endorsed anti-immigrant political candidates.

nativist movements

A church supported by official state tax revenues, which was systematically dismantled between 1790 and 1830. Its abolition enabled the rapid growth of voluntary Baptist and Methodist denominations during the Second Great Awakening.

Established church

A multi-decade wave of evangelical religious revivals that transformed the nation's spiritual landscape between 1790 and 1840. It generated new Protestant denominations, fostered black Protestantism, and ignited widespread antebellum reform movements.

Second Great Awakening

An educator who opened the Middlebury Female Seminary in 1814 and founded prominent female academies in New York. She successfully established higher educational opportunities for women and trained female teachers for public schools.

Emma Willard

The right to vote, which state governments expanded between 1810 and 1830 by eliminating property qualifications for white adult males. It enabled the rise of mass popular political participation and ended the era of elite political notables.

franchise

Northern landlords, slave-owning planters, and wealthy merchants who dominated early political life through inherited social prestige. They were systematically displaced by professional politicians operating disciplined mass political machines.

notables

A highly disciplined party organization led by professional politicians who used patronage and newspaper networks to mobilize voters. It fundamentally revolutionized American political organization starting with Martin Van Buren's Albany Regency.

political machine

A French aristocrat who wrote Democracy in America in 1835 after studying American prisons and social customs. His writings provided an insightful external perspective on the rise of mass democracy and American individualism.

Alexis de Tocqueville

The practice of distributing government office jobs to political party loyalists following an election victory. It was instituted on a national scale by Andrew Jackson to reward party workers under the doctrine of office rotation.

spoils system

A private meeting of political party leaders to select candidates and determine legislative policy. It was largely replaced during the 1830s by national nominating conventions to accommodate popular voter participation.

caucus

Henry Clay's integrated mercantilist economic program combining high protective tariffs, a national bank, and federally funded internal improvements. It formed the central economic platform of the Whig Party and sparked fierce sectional debates over federal power.

American System

Public works infrastructure projects such as roads, canals, and harbors designed to link regional economies. Their federal funding was heavily restricted by presidential vetoes, forcing states to finance transportation networks independently.

internal improvements

The political accusation made by Jacksonians that Speaker Henry Clay swung the 1824 House presidential vote to John Quincy Adams in exchange for being named Secretary of State. It galvanized voter outrage and fueled Andrew Jackson's victorious 1828 populist presidential campaign.

corrupt bargain

A New York politician who created the modern Democratic Party, served as Jackson's Secretary of State, and won the presidency in 1836. He masterminded disciplined political organizing but struggled politically during the severe economic depression of the Panic of 1837.

Martin Van Buren

The sixth President of the United States who advocated nationalist economic development, national universities, and scientific exploration. His nationalist agenda was aggressively targeted by southern politicians over protective tariffs leading to his defeat in 1828.

John Quincy Adams

A high protective tariff passed by Congress in 1828 that imposed heavy duties on imported raw materials and manufactured textiles. It deeply enraged southern planters and directly provoked John C. Calhoun's constitutional doctrine of nullification.

Tariff of Abominations

A Kentucky statesman, Speaker of the House, and leader of who championed the American System and engineered major sectional compromises. He co-founded the Whig Party specifically to oppose Andrew Jackson's perceived executive overreach and tyranny.

Henry Clay

The seventh President of the United States who expanded executive power, destroyed the national bank, and enforced aggressive Indian removal. He permanently transformed the presidency into a populist office and consolidated the Second Party System.

Andrew Jackson

Vice President under Adams and Jackson who authored The South Carolina Exposition and Protest defending slavery and state sovereignty. He formulated the aggressive states' rights doctrine of nullification to challenge federal authority over tariffs.

John C. Calhoun

The constitutional theory asserting that an individual state has the legal right to declare an unconstitutional federal law void within its borders. It was formally invoked by South Carolina in 1832 to challenge federal protective tariffs and test the limits of union.

nullification

An interpretation of the Constitution stressing limited federal authority and preserving state sovereignty over domestic institutions. It provided the primary constitutional justification for nullification and southern defenses of slavery.

states' rights

A Massachusetts Senator and orator who defended the Union, nationalist economic policies, and federal supremacy over state sovereignty. He famously rebutted nullification during congressional debates by championing the indivisible supremacy of the federal Union.

Daniel Webster

The autocratic president of the Second Bank of the United States who managed national credit and paper currency regulation. His fierce political clash with Andrew Jackson over bank rechartering precipitated the intense political conflict known as the Bank War.

Nicholas Biddle

A national bank chartered by Congress in 1816 to stabilize the currency and hold federal tax revenues. Its destruction by Andrew Jackson through vetoes and fund removals threw the national banking system into turmoil.

Second Bank of the United States

An 1831 Supreme Court case in which Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Native American tribes were domestic dependent nations rather than foreign states. It denied Cherokees original jurisdiction to sue Georgia in federal court, setting the stage for subsequent removal litigation.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

An 1832 Supreme Court ruling holding that Georgia state laws had no force within Cherokee territorial boundaries. It was openly defied by Andrew Jackson, who refused to enforce the ruling and pressed forward with native removal.

Worcester v. Georgia

Federal legislation signed by Jackson allocating funds to forcibly relocate eastern Native tribes to territory west of the Mississippi River. It directly resulted in the expulsion of southeastern tribes and the tragic military coercion of the Trail of Tears.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

The forced 1,200-mile relocation march of 14,000 Cherokees conducted by the U.S. Army in 1838. It resulted in the devastating death of thousands of Cherokees from exposure, starvation, and disease.

Trail of Tears

Jackson's loyal Treasury Secretary who removed federal deposits from the national bank and later served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He authored influential Supreme Court decisions that favored state economic regulation and corporate enterprise.

Roger B. Taney

An economic doctrine advocating minimal government intervention, low taxes, free enterprise, and small national budgets. It became deeply embedded in new Jacksonian-era state constitutions that restricted public debt and corporate subsidies.

classical liberalism, or laissez-faire

A national political party formed in 1834 to combat Andrew Jackson's executive expansion and promote nationalist economic growth. They actively supported Henry Clay's American System, corporate charters, and evangelical moral reform programs.

Whigs

State-chartered banks loyal to the Democratic Party selected by Roger Taney to store federal revenues removed from the national bank. They issued excessive paper currency, fueling speculative land booms and helping trigger the Panic of 1837.

"pet banks"

A major financial crisis triggered by British credit tightening, falling cotton prices, and bank runs demanding specie. It caused widespread business failures, severe unemployment, and the sudden collapse of early labor unions.

Panic of 1837

An executive order issued by Andrew Jackson in 1836 requiring federal land offices to accept only gold and silver coin for public land purchases. It severely drained specie from commercial banks, accelerating the catastrophic onset of the Panic of 1837.

Specie Circular

The Vice President who assumed the presidency in 1841 following William Henry Harrison's sudden death. He was promptly expelled from the Whig Party after vetoing party legislation for a new national bank and higher tariffs.

John Tyler

The political practice of voting along ethnic and religious lines rather than strict economic class divisions. It successfully aligned Irish and German Catholics with Democrats while uniting native-born Protestants behind the Whig Party.

ethnocultural politics

A cultural condition describing Americans detached from traditional ancestral ties and relying entirely on personal effort. It was famously celebrated by transcendentalist writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson as the cornerstone of American freedom.

individualism

A 19th-century intellectual movement centered in New England that advocated self-reliance, intuitive spiritual insight, and nature communion. It challenged commercial materialism and inspired prominent literary and social reform movements.

transcendentalism

A Boston Unitarian essayist and lecturer who served as the leading philosopher of transcendentalism. He inspired generations of thinkers by calling for a distinct American literature rooted in individual intellectual freedom.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

A transcendentalist author who lived isolated at Walden Pond and published influential works advocating civil disobedience. He provided a powerful philosophical model for nonviolent resistance against unjust government policies and taxation.

Henry David Thoreau

Idealized agrarian communal settlements established by reformers seeking refuge from capitalist industrial society. They reflected antebellum perfectionism through experimental models like Brook Farm, the Shakers, and Oneida.

utopias

A poet who published Leaves of Grass in 1855, celebrating democratic individualism, human passion, and spiritual nature communion. He successfully incorporated transcendentalist ideals into celebrated popular American poetry.

Walt Whitman

An evangelical Protestant belief holding that humans could achieve sinless moral perfection on earth because Christ had already returned. It was adopted by various radical religious communities to justify alternative social structures and complex marriages.

perfectionism

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 following his publication of the Book of Mormon. It faced intense violent persecution over religious doctrines and polygamy, prompting Brigham Young to lead members to Utah.

Mormonism

Popular theatrical shows featuring white actors performing racist song-and-dance routines in blackface. It reinforced white racial supremacy and working-class solidarity across the North against abolitionism.

minstrelsy

The radical social movement demanding the immediate, uncompensated emancipation of all enslaved African Americans. Led by figures like William Lloyd Garrison, it intensified sectional conflict between northern reformers and southern slaveholders.

abolitionism

An enslaved Virginia preacher who led a bloody slave revolt in 1831, killing 55 white men, women, and children. It prompted fierce legislative debate over gradual emancipation in Virginia and resulted in much harsher southern slave codes.

Nat Turner

An organization founded in 1816 advocating the gradual emancipation of slaves and their relocation to Liberia in West Africa. It was widely rejected by radical abolitionists and free Black leaders who viewed it as a scheme to protect slavery.

American Colonization Society

A Boston abolitionist who founded The Liberator in 1831 and co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. He spearheaded the radical moral suasion movement by demanding immediate uncompensated emancipation and women's rights.

William Lloyd Garrison

An informal parliamentary agreement adopted by the House of Representatives in 1836 to automatically table all antislavery petitions. It provoked intense free-speech protests led by John Quincy Adams before being successfully repealed in 1844.

gag rule

An asylum reformer who investigated the cruel mistreatment of the mentally ill in local jails and almshouses. Her tireless lobbying persuaded state legislatures to build dedicated public mental hospitals and reform penitentiaries.

Dorothea Dix

The 19th-century middle-class ideal dictating that women should remain confined to the private domestic sphere while men operated in public commerce. It was actively challenged by female activists participating in temperance, abolitionism, and the women's rights movement.

separate sphere

Legislation passed in states like New York in 1848 giving married women legal ownership over property brought into marriage or inherited. It marked a major legal breakthrough achieved through political lobbying by early women's rights activists.

married women's property laws

The first women's rights convention in American history, held in New York in 1848. It issued the historic Declaration of Sentiments asserting gender equality and demanding female suffrage.

Seneca Falls Convention

An abolitionist and women's rights leader who co-organized the Seneca Falls Convention and drafted the Declaration of Sentiments. She partnered with Susan B. Anthony to lead the organized 19th-century women's rights movement for civil equality.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A Quaker reformer who built a powerful activist network of political organizers lobbying state legislatures for female property and voting rights. She became a central organizational pillar of the nineteenth-century women's suffrage movement.

Susan B. Anthony

The legal doctrine treating enslaved human beings as movable personal property subject to buying, selling, and mortgaging. It underpinned the brutal domestic slave trade and systematically separated slave families across the South.

chattel principle

A paternalistic ideology cultivated by slave owners claiming they treated enslaved workers with paternal care and Christian benevolence. It was deliberately used by planters to mask the inherent coercion and brutality of plantation slavery.

benevolent masters

An escaped slave who published Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl in 1861 detailing the severe physical and sexual abuse inflicted on enslaved women. Her autobiography exposed the grim reality of planter paternalism and enriched antebellum abolitionist literature.

Harriet Jacobs

The wealthy planter elite of the South who built extravagant estates and modeled their social lifestyle on the British landed gentry. They completely dominated southern politics and vigorously defended human bondage as foundational to their society.

republican aristocracy

A proslavery defense formulated in the 1830s asserting that slavery benefited both blacks and whites by civilizing laborers and ensuring social stability. It replaced earlier justifications of slavery as a necessary evil and dominated southern political ideology.

"positive good" argument

A plantation labor system where disciplined teams of slaves worked continuously under the close supervision of white overseers and black drivers. It dramatically increased cotton field productivity in the Lower South while heightening physical strain on workers.

gang-labor system

A society where the institution of slavery structurally affected every aspect of economic, legal, and social life. It defined the Antebellum South, shaping tax policies, militia duties, and unyielding white racial solidarity.

slave society

The President and military dictator of Mexico who centralized national authority and led troops against the Texas revolution in 1836. His military actions against Texas rebels galvanized American volunteers and led to Mexican defeat at San Jacinto.

Antonio López de Santa Anna

A Franciscan mission in San Antonio where Mexican forces killed 187 Texas defenders in 1836. It generated the legendary battle cry "Remember the Alamo," mobilizing American volunteers behind Texas independence.

Alamo

Voting by printed paper ballot deposited in a closed box, replacing public vocal voting in southern state constitutions during the 1840s. It extended white male democratic participation while preserving planter economic supremacy.

secret ballot

A distinct form of evangelical Christianity created by enslaved African Americans that incorporated West African spiritual traditions. It heavily emphasized the biblical Exodus story, personal spiritual salvation, and emotional endurance under bondage.

black Protestantism