PYSCH Unit9

AP PSYCHOLOGY

Attribution Theory

A theory explaining how individuals infer the causes of their own and others' behaviors, often distinguishing between situational and dispositional factors.

Dispositional attribution

A judgment that the cause of a behavior is due to a person's internal characteristics, such as personality traits or emotions, rather than external factors.

Situational attribution

A judgment that the cause of a behavior is due to external factors, such as environmental influences or social pressures, rather than internal characteristics.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviors.

Attitudes

An individual's evaluations, feelings, and tendencies toward an object or person, which can influence their behavior. These feelings are often influenced by our beliefs.

Peripheral route persuasion

A method of persuasion that focuses on superficial cues rather than the content of the message, often influenced by factors such as attractiveness or credibility of the source.

Central route persuasion

A method of persuasion that involves thoughtful consideration of the arguments presented in a message, often leading to a lasting change in attitudes. (Logos)

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

A persuasive technique that involves getting a person to agree to a small request first, followed by a larger request.

Door-in-the-face phenomenon

A persuasive technique that begins with a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. 先抑后扬

Role

The expected behavior associated with a particular social position or status, influencing how individuals act and interact in various contexts.

Standard Prison Study

A psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 to investigate the effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between authority and personal identity in a simulated prison environment. Under unequal power relationships, individual values can be broken and situational pressure creates a toxic situation. This study highlighted the impact of situational forces on behavior, demonstrating how individuals can conform to roles and lose their sense of self. They took on roles and performed the behaviors expected in that role.

Cognitive dissonance theory

A psychological theory by Leon Festinger positing that individuals experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to change one of the beliefs or behaviors to reduce the dissonance.

Low-ball technique

A persuasion strategy where a person is initially given a low price for a commitment but then the price is increased after the commitment is made, resulting in the person feeling compelled to follow through with the higher price.

Bait and switch technique

A marketing strategy that attracts customers with low-priced items but then promotes higher-priced alternatives, often leading to dissatisfaction and deception. This technique involves advertising a product at a low price to draw in customers, only to later persuade them to purchase a different, often more expensive, item.

Norms

Social rules or expectations that guide behavior within a group. They dictate what is considered acceptable and unacceptable conduct in various situations.

Social contagion

The phenomenon where behaviors, emotions, or attitudes are spread through social networks, influencing individuals to adopt similar actions or feelings as those around them.

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, often influenced by social pressure or the desire for acceptance.

Normative social influence

The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them, often resulting in changes to our beliefs or behaviors to fit group norms.

obedience

The act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure, often resulting in changes to one's behavior.

Group Behavior

The behavior of individuals when they are in a group context, influenced by group dynamics, social norms, and the presence of others.

Social facilitation

The tendency for individuals to perform better on simple or well-practiced tasks when in the presence of others, as opposed to when they are alone.

Social loafing

The phenomenon where individuals put in less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone, often due to the diffusion of responsibility.

deindividualization

The reduction of self-awareness and individual accountability in group situations, leading to increased impulsivity and loss of personal responsibility.

group polarization

The tendency of group members to shift towards more extreme positions or opinions after group discussions, resulting in more extreme decisions than individuals would make alone.

groupthink

A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making. Group members suppress dissenting viewpoints to maintain consensus.

culture

The shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a group that shape its members' behaviors and perceptions. Culture influences how individuals think, communicate, and interact within their communities.

Prejudice

A preconceived negative judgment or opinion about an individual or group based on their perceived characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion.

stereotypes

Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a group of people, often leading to inaccurate or unfair assumptions based on their characteristics.

ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others, often resulting in viewing other cultures through the lens of one's own cultural norms and values.

subtle prejudice

A form of prejudice that is less overt and often expressed indirectly, commonly involving dismissive attitudes or behaviors towards certain groups without explicit hostility. It can manifest through microaggressions, lack of empathy, or a reluctance to interact with individuals from targeted groups.

Race prime perceptions

The phenomenon where an individual's racial or ethnic identity influences their interpretation of social cues or interactions, leading to biases in perception and judgment.

Implicit bias

The unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner, often influencing behavior towards others based on their race, ethnicity, or other characteristics.

Explicit bias

The conscious and deliberate attitudes or beliefs that an individual holds regarding particular groups, which can lead to overt discrimination or negative behaviors based on those beliefs.

just-world phenomenon

The cognitive bias that suggests individuals get what they deserve; good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, often leading to victim-blaming.

in group

A social group to which a person perceives they belong, often characterized by a shared identity, interests, or values, influencing their interactions with members of other groups.

out group

A social group with which an individual does not identify, often seen as different or opposing to one's own group, potentially leading to prejudice and discrimination.

scapegoating

The practice of unfairly blaming an individual or group for problems, often used as a way to relieve responsibility or deflect attention from the real issues. It frequently targets marginalized groups. This process allows individuals to project their frustrations onto others, creating a sense of unity within their own group by fostering hostility towards the scapegoat.

other-race effect

The tendency for people to more easily recognize faces of their own race compared to faces of other races, which can lead to misidentification and reduced memory accuracy for faces not belonging to one's racial group.

availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This can lead to biased judgments and decision-making.

aggression

A behavior intended to harm or injure another person, either physically or psychologically. It can be driven by frustration, anger, or a perceived threat.

hormone testosterone

A steroid hormone produced primarily in the testes for males and ovaries for females, playing a role in the development of male physical characteristics and promoting muscle and bone mass.

alcohol influence on aggression

The effect of alcohol on aggression can lead to increased impulsivity and lowered inhibitions, resulting in a higher likelihood of aggressive behaviors. Studies suggest that alcohol consumption may distort perceptions of social interactions, contributing to misunderstandings and conflicts.

frustration-aggression principle

The frustration-aggression principle posits that frustration, which arises from blocked goals, can lead to aggressive behavior as a means of coping with the discomfort. This theory suggests that aggressive reactions are often the result of feelings of helplessness or anger.

aggression influenced by temperature and retaliation

The relationship between aggression and temperature suggests that higher temperatures can increase aggressive behavior, as discomfort may lead to irritability. Additionally, retaliation can occur as a defensive response to perceived threats or provocations.

Media model violence

The media model of violence suggests that exposure to violent media can lead to increased aggression in individuals, shaping their perceptions of social behavior and norms. This model posits that repeated exposure can desensitize viewers and promote aggressive responses in real-life situations.

social script

A social script is a set of expected behaviors, actions, or responses that individuals follow in particular social situations. These scripts help to guide behavior and interactions, influencing how people interpret events and respond to others.

mere exposure effect

The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon whereby repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual's preference for that stimulus. This effect suggests that familiarity can lead to a more positive attitude towards people, objects, or ideas.

similarity

Similarity refers to the tendency for individuals to be attracted to others who share common characteristics, interests, or backgrounds. This concept plays a significant role in social interactions and relationships.

passionate love

is an intense emotional and physical attraction to another person, often characterized by feelings of infatuation, desire, and strong attachment. It typically involves a deep longing for connection and is often associated with the beginning stages of romantic relationships.

passion

Passion refers to a powerful emotion or enthusiasm that drives an individual towards a particular activity, person, or pursuit. In the context of love, it indicates a strong desire for connection and intimacy.

schachter-singer two-factor theory

is a theory of emotion that asserts that physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation combine to determine an individual's emotional experience. According to this theory, both components are necessary for the experience of emotions.

companionate love

is a deep, affectionate attachment that develops between partners, characterized by mutual respect, trust, and a strong bond. Unlike passionate love, it grows slowly and emphasizes companionship and shared life experiences.

oxytocin

a hormone that plays a crucial role in bonding, increasing feelings of love and attachment between individuals.

equity

a principle in relationships that emphasizes fairness and balance, often regarding the distribution of resources and benefits.

self-disclosure

the act of sharing personal information with another person, which can enhance intimacy and trust in relationships.

enduring love

a long-lasting romantic bond characterized by deep affection, commitment, and stability over time.

Bystander effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when others are present, often due to diffusion of responsibility.

altruism

the selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to acts of kindness without expectation of reward.

bystander intervention

the act of stepping in to help someone in need during an emergency situation, counteracting the bystander effect.

social-exchange theory

A psychological theory that posits human relationships are formed based on the exchange of resources, where individuals seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs in interpersonal interactions.

reciprocity norm

The social standard that encourages individuals to respond to positive actions with other positive actions, fostering a cycle of mutual benefit.

social-responsibility norm

The ethical principle that individuals should help others who are in need, even if it involves a cost to themselves, particularly in emergency situations.

conflict

A disagreement or clash between individuals or groups that can arise from opposing interests, values, or needs, often leading to tension or hostility.

social trap

A situation in which individuals or groups are drawn into a cycle of mutually destructive behavior due to pursuing their self-interest, leading to long-term negative consequences.

mirror-image perceptions

The tendency of opposing sides in a conflict to view each other as similar in negative ways, perceiving their own actions as justified while seeing the other's actions as hostile or irrational.

superordinate goals

Shared objectives that require cooperation between conflicting groups, promoting unity and collaboration.

Muzafer Sherif Study

A series of experiments conducted by social psychologist Muzafer Sherif that explored the dynamics of group conflict and cooperation, particularly demonstrating how superordinate goals can reduce prejudice and enhance collaboration among rival groups.

GRIT

A conflict-resolution strategy involving reciprocal concessions to promote cooperation between opposing parties.

self-fulfilling prophecies

A psychological phenomenon where a person's belief or expectation about an outcome influences their behavior in a way that causes the expected outcome to occur.

person perception

The process by which individuals form impressions and make judgments about other people based on their characteristics or behaviors.

actor-observe bias

A cognitive bias where individuals attribute their own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal characteristics. (like fundamental attribution error)

tight culture

A cultural framework that imposes strict norms and behavior expectations, leading to less tolerance for deviance and a greater emphasis on conformity.

loose culture

A cultural framework that allows for more flexibility in norms and behavior, leading to greater tolerance for deviance and individual expression.