Module 1 Psych 101

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs because of experience

Behaviourism

A school of psychology stating that behaviour can be studied objectively without referring to internal mental states (treats the mind as a "black box").

Classical vs Operant

Classical(Pavlovian): associations, conditions involuntary physiological/reflexive responses

Operant (Skinner/Thorndike): consequences, conditions voluntary behavioural responses

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

reintroduced mental processes into learning (beliefs, memories, expectations), stating learning occurs through imitation/learnign from a model.

Unconditioned Stimulus

(CC)

a stimulus that elicits a naturally and automatic w/o prior learning reflexive response (ex. food)

Unconditioned Response

(CC)

An unlearned, naturally occuring reflexive response to the UC (ex. salivation to food)

Conditioned Stimulus

(CC)
An initially unconditioned neautral stimulus, that after being paired with a US, comes to elicit a conditioned response. (ex. bell)

Conditioned Response

(CC)

A learned reflexive response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (ex. salivation to the bell)

Timing for Acquisition

(CC)
Neutral Stimulus must precede US by a short time interval

Extintion (Classical)

(CC)weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned reflex after a period where CS is repeatedly presetned without the US

Spontaneous Recovery

(CC)reappearence of an extinguished conditioned reflex thought it returns weaker

Higher-Order Conditioning

(CC)a procedure where another neutral stimulus is paired with the US with an already established CS (ex. light with bell)

Stimulus Generalization

(CC)Eliciting the CR to a neutral stimulus that is similar to the CS

Stimulus Discrimination

(CC)Failed to generalize neutral stimulus to a similar CS.

Conditioned Taste adversion

John Garcia

(CC) avoiding a specific food stimulus b/c its associated with nausea/vomitting (ex. spoiled seafood) . only needs one pairing to learn it

Homeostasis/Drug Tolerance

Classical conditioning explains drug tolerance because environmental cues (person, place, context) act as a CS, prompting the body to produce a compensatory CR (e.g., decreasing CNS activity before a stimulant is even taken) to preserve balance.

(ex. overdosing bc in a diff room)

Reinforcement

(OC)Any consequence/stimulus that increases the likelihood of the response it follows

Punishment

(OC)Any consequence/stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the response it follows.

Positive/Negative (Operant Operands)

(OC) "Positive" means adding/introducing a stimulus; "Negative" means removing/escaping a stimulus.

Positive Reinforcement

(OC) Increasing a behaviour by adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., getting a good grade for studying).

Negative Reinforcement

(OC) ncreasing a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., studying to stop a parent's nagging).

Positive Punishment

(OC) Decreasing a behaviour by adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., getting a fine for drinking and driving).

Negative Punishment

(OC) Decreasing a behaviour by removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., revoking driving privileges for drinking and driving).

Primary Reinforcers/Secondary Reinforcers

(OC) Primary reinforcers inherently satisfy a biological need (e.g., food); Secondary reinforcers acquire value through association with others (e.g., money)

Shaping

An operant procedure where reinforcers guide behaviour by rewarding successive approximations of a desired final response. Shaping is an operant conditioning method used to train a completely new behavior that an animal or human wouldn't naturally know how to do. Instead of waiting around for the subject to perform the perfect action on their own, you reward them step-by-step for getting closer and closer to the final goal. These steps are called successive approximations.

The Key Rule:
Once the subject masters an early step, you stop rewarding that step and only reward the next, more difficult step.

📦 Real-World Examples:

• The Skinner Box (Rat pushing a lever): A rat in a cage doesn't automatically know that pressing a plastic bar will drop a food pellet.

  • Step 1: Reward the rat just for turning and looking at the lever.

  • Step 2: Stop rewarding looking; only reward the rat for physically walking over to the lever's side of the cage.

  • Step 3: Only reward the rat if it touches the lever with its nose or paw.

  • Step 4: Finally, only reward the rat when it actually uses its weight to press the lever down.

• Training a Service Dog to Open a Door:

  • Step 1: Reward the dog for looking at the door handle.

  • Step 2: Reward the dog for walking over and touching the handle with its nose.

  • Step 3: Put a tug-rope on the handle and reward the dog only when it takes the rope in its mouth.

  • Step 4: Finally, reward the dog only when it grips the rope and pulls backwards hard enough to swing the door open.

• Learning a Human Skill (Writing): When a toddler learns to write their name, parents don't wait for perfect cursive. First, they praise the child for holding the crayon. Then, they praise them for making random squiggles. Next, they praise legible but messy letters, gradually raising the bar until the child writes perfectly.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for an organism to revert to innate, instinctive behaviours that interfere with conditioned operant responses.

Instinctive drift is the biological boundary to operant conditioning. It is the tendency for an organism to stop performing a learned, conditioned behavior and revert back to its innate, biological instincts—even if doing so means they lose out on their reward.

It proves that animals are not completely "blank slates" (which challenges B.F. Skinner's strict behaviorist view) and that nature can override nurture.

A Trained Domestic Cat: You might successfully shape a pet cat to "sit" and "high-five" on command using treats. However, if a wild bird suddenly flies through the room, the cat will instantly ignore your commands and "drift" right back into a predatory crouch and stalk the bird. The hardwired hunting instinct instantly overrides the operant conditioning.

Intrinsic reinforcers/Extrinsic reinforcers

Intrinsic reinforcers originate inside the individual (e.g., pride); Extrinsic reinforcers are external rewards (e.g., money). Extrinsic rewards can sometimes diminish intrinsic motivation

(ex. desire to do art vs a prize, quality goes down)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set, predictable number of responses (results in high response rates, but a temporary drop right after reinforcement)

Ex.

• Coffee Loyalty Cards: You buy exactly 10 coffees to get the 11th one free (

• Factory Piece-Work / Sales Quotas: A clothing factory worker gets paid

$20 for every 5 shirts they sew.

• Video Game Leveling: In many games, you must defeat exactly 100 enemies to unlock a specific achievement or level up.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable/average number of responses (results in high, steady response rates and is the most resistant to extinction)

Ex. gambling

Fixed-interval Schedule

Reinforcement is available for the first response after a set, fixed amount of time has passed (creates a scallop pattern where responding stops and then accelerates close to the deadline)

“cramming"

Ex.

• Baking Cookies: You put a tray of cookies in the oven for exactly 10 minutes. Checking the oven door at minute 2, 4, or 6 yields no reward (raw dough). You only get the reward (baked cookies) on the first check after the 10 minutes are up.

• Paycheques: Getting paid every two weeks. Working harder on Tuesday won't make your paycheque arrive any faster; the time interval must pass.

• Scheduled Exams: If Dr. Wehr schedules an exam every 4 weeks, students generally don't study much during week 1 or 2. Responding (studying) picks up heavily right before the time interval ends.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is available for the first response after an unpredictable, average amount of time has passed (results in a slow, steady response rate).

“Waiting around. It could happen at any moment, so keep a steady eye out."

Ex.

• Surfing / Catching a Wave: A surfer paddles out and waits. A rideable wave might come after 2 minutes, then 10 minutes, then 5 minutes. The surfer must keep checking and paddling steadily because the waves arrive on an unpredictable time loop.

• Pop Quizzes: Instead of scheduled exams, a teacher gives pop quizzes randomly throughout the term. Because a quiz could happen on any given day, students must maintain a steady baseline of studying.

• Checking Your Phone for a Text: When waiting for a reply from a friend, you check your phone. The text arrives at unpredictable time intervals (3 minutes, 20 minutes, 1 hour). Checking 50 times in a row doesn't make it happen faster, so you just check at a steady, moderate pace.

Is memory a static recording or an active puzzle?

An active puzzle. Memory is a reconstructive process; must be actively rebuilt into mind each time its retrieved.

What are the three common errors introduced when memory goes through construction?

1. Omission (losing/neglecting details)

2. Substituition (changing/swapping details)

3. Insertions (adding details that never happened)

What is Confabulation

phenomenon where a memory is entirely, made up

What is Source Amnesia and how does it cause confabulation?

It is recalling a piece of information but forgetting its true origin. It causes confabulation when you hear about someone else’s experience, forget they told you, and later mistakenly reconstruct it as your own memory.

What is the relationship between how often we recall a memory and its accuracy?

An inverse relationship. Our least accurate memories are those we think about the most, because errors are introduced every single time a memory is reconstructed.

How does our subjective confidence align with the actual accuracy of our memories?

We tend to be overconfident in the accuracy of our memories and completely oblivious to the changes and errors introduced into them over time.

What is a Leading Question?

A question that presupposes the truth about what kind of answer is likely to be correct (e.g., using "smash" vs "hit" to imply a specific vehicle speed).

How long can the memory-altering effect of a leading question endure?

At least a week later (and potentially longer), impacting how people reconstruct details of the event when asked additional questions.

Why do judges and juries continue to trust eyewitness testimony despite research showing it is unreliable without corroborating evidence?

• Because subjectively, human memory feels highly accurate to the person recalling it, causing legal figures to discount the scientific research.

What is Encoding in the context of memory?

The first process of memory that converts various types of information (such as experiences, lyrics, or physical movements) into neuronal impulses in the brain.

What is Passive Encoding and what is its typical outcome?

Encoding that occurs when no effort is invested in remembering information (e.g., watching TV). It is a very shallow form of processing, meaning some information may be retained, but most will be lost or remembered inaccurately.

What is Active Encoding and why does it lead to better memory retention?

Encoding that occurs when deliberate effort is expended to process information for later use (e.g., taking notes or studying). It leads to superior memory performance because it requires deeper levels of processing.

What does Structural Encoding focus on?

It focuses on the physical or visual structure of a word (e.g., asking about the appearance or lettering of a word).

What does Phonemic Encoding focus on?

It focuses on the auditory characteristics of a word, or what the word sounds like (e.g., asking if a word rhymes with another word).

What does Semantic Encoding focus on?

It focuses on the actual meaning of the word (representing the deepest level of processing among the three types).