Chapter 1

Anatomy

Scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and shape of a bone.

Physiology

Scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things.

Gross

Structures examined without a microscope.

Regional

Studied area by area.

Systemic

Studied system by system.

Surface

External form used to visualize deeper structures.

Cytology

Study of cellular anatomy and requires a microscope.

Histology

Study of tissues and requires a microscope.

Anatomical Imaging

Uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

X-Ray

Electromagnetic radiation moves through the body and is exposed on a photographic plate, creating a radiograph.

Ultrasound

Sound waves pass into the body and bounce back to the receiver, visualized as a sonogram.

Computed Tomography

Computer-analyzed x-ray images.

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

Similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Radio waves directed to the patient while under an electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected and it provides info on metabolic state.

Cell Physiology

Examines Processes in cells

Systemic Physiology

Functions of organ systems.

Neurophysiology

Focuses on the nervous system.

Cardiovascular Physiology

The heart and blood vessels.

Pathology

Structural and functional changes caused by disease

Exercise Physiology

Changes in structure and function caused by exercise.

Chemical Level

Interaction of atoms and molecules.

Cell Level

Structural and functional unit of living organisms.

Organelles

Combinations of molecules for structures that carry out specific functions inside a cell.

Tissue Level

Group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Four types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous.

Organ Level

Two or more tissues functioning together.

Organ System Level

Group of organs functioning together.

Organism Level

Any living thing, whether composed of one cell or many.

Integumentary System

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.

Skeletal System

Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

Muscular System

Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.

Nervous System

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors.

Endocrine System

A major regulatory system that influences growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones.

Cardiovascular System

Transport nutrients, waste products, gases and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and regulation system of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Lymphatic System

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.

Respiratory System

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air & regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

Digestive System

Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

Urinary System

Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder and ducts that carry urine.

Female Reproductive System

Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; and produces hormones that influence reproductive function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures.

Male Reproductive System

Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female; produces hormones that influence reproductive functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.

Organization

Condition in which there are specific interrelationships and functions among the parts of an organism. One of the characteristics of life. The ability to maintain this characterist of life leads to disease and death.

Metabolism

The ability to used energy to perform vital functions; All chemical reactions of the body; One of the characteristics of life.

Responsiveness

Ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary. One of the characteristics of life.

Growth

Increase in size and/or number of cells. One of the characteristics of life.

Development

Changes in an organism over time. One of the characteristics of life.

Differentiation

Type of development (one of the characteristics of life) that involves changes in a cell’s structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state. When cells after fertilization become different cell types, like skin cells or bone cells.

Morphogenesis

Type of development (one of the characteristics of life) that is the change in the shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism.

Reproduction

Formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their

genes to their offspring.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment within the body.

Variables

Changes in internal body conditions that are not constant.

Normal Range

The narrow scope in which all variables need to be maintained in the body for our cells to function properly.

Set Point

The ideal normal value at which body condition is maintained.

Feedback Loops

Allows for a process to be regulated by the outcome.

Negative Feedback Loop

Regulates most systems in the body; counteracts a change in variable by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis. Examples: Body temperature and blood pressure during exercise.

Positive Feedback

When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater. Unusual in healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death. Examples: childbirth, lactation, and blood clotting. Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed.

Types of Body Positions

Antomical, Supine and Prone.

Anatomical Position

Body erect, face forward, feet together, and palms facing forward.

Supine Position

Laying face upwards.

Prone Position

Laying face down.

Directional Terms

Superior, Inferior, Medial, Lateral, Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep, Anterior,Posterior, Right and Left.

Superior (Cephalic)

Up towards the head. A structure above another. Chin is to the naval.

Inferior (Caudal)

Down and away from the head. A structure below another. Naval to the chin.

Medial

Toward the middle of the body. The nose to the eye.

Lateral

Away from the middle of the body. Nipple to the breast bone.

Proximal

Up for arms and legs. Closer to the point of attachment to the body. Elbow to the wrist.

Distal

Down for arms and legs. Farther from the point of attachment to the body. Wrist to elbow.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Down towards the back, lower in the body. Spine to the breast bone.

Anterior (Ventral)

Up towards the front of the body. The naval to the spine.

Deep

Inside the body. Away from the surface. Lungs to the ribs.

Superficial

Outside the body. Toward or on the surface of the body. Skin to muscle.

Head

Frontal, Orbital, Nasal, Oral, Otic, Buccal, Mental, Cranial, Occipital & Nuchal.

Cranial

Skull

Occipital

Back of skull

Nuchal

Back of neck

Mental

Chin

Buccal

Cheek

Otic

Ear

Frontal

Forehead

Orbital

Eye

Nasal

Nose

Oral

Mouth

Cervical

Neck

Thoracic (Thorax)

Pectoral, Sternal, Mammary.

Pectoral

Chest

Sternal

Breast bone

Abdomen

Abdominal & Umbilical

Abdominal

Abdomen

Umbilical

Naval

Pelvis

Pelvic, Inguinal, Pubic

Pelvic

Pelvis

Inguinal

Groin

Pubic

Genital

Trunk

Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvis, Dorsal, Sarcal, Gluteal & Perineal

Dorsal

Back

Scapular

Shoulder Blade

Lumbar

Lower back

Sacral

Between the hips

Gluteal

Buttock

Perineal

Perineum

Upper Limb

Clavicular, Axillary, Brachial, Antecubital, Antebrachial, Carpal, Manual, Acromial, Olecranon, & Dorsum