physio exam 1

homeostasis

body's ability to maintain normal internal environment

physiology

the study of the functions of organisms/ how the body works

body functions are _____? what does that mean? example?

1. integrated

2. proper functioning of one part depends on functions of different parts

3. muscle takes o2 from blood cells made in bones

organ systems? example?

1. collection of anatomical structures that work together to carry out a function

2. cardiovascular system

4 levels of body organization

1. cell

2. tissue

3. organ

4. organ system

4 major types of human cells

1. neurons

2. muscle cells

3. epithelial cells

4. connective tissue cells

4 major types of tissues? how are tissues classified?

1a. nerve tissue

b. muscle tissue

c. epithelium

d. connective tissue

5. classified by cell function (same as 4 major types of cells)

Neurons and nerve tissue:

1. main function

2. how?

3. secondary function

1. transmit signals for communication via electrical signals

2. receive information from receptors and transmit to muscles/other organs

3. some neurons process information

4 parts of neurons

1. dendrites- receive info

2. somatic body

3. axon

4. axon terminal- send info

muscle cells:

1. specialized to do what

2. 3 types

3. which types voluntary/involuntary

4. which types somatic/autonomic NS

1. contract

2a skeletal - voluntary - somatic NS

b smooth - invol. - autonomic NS

c. cardiac - invol. - autonomic NS

epithelial cells:

1. 2 types of tissue and locations?

2. 2 functions?

3. what's epithelium?

1a. epithelium- lines external body surfaces

b. endothelium- lines hollow organs or vessels

2a. barrier that separates inside of body from outside

b. transport membrane

3a. sheet-like layer of cells on top of basement membrane (epithelial tissue)

lumen

interior of hollow organs or vessels

Glands:

1. made of what cell type?

2. function?

3. 2 types and structure?

1. epithelium

2. manufacture a product

3a. exocrine glands - transport product outside body via duct (long distance)

3b. endocrine glands- no ducts release hormone directly into blood

connective tissue:

1. most _____ tissue type?

2. characterized by what?

3. functions?

4. examples?

1. diverse

2. extracellular matrix

3. anchors, supports, links bodily structures

4. bone, tendon, fat, blood

extracellular matrix

The substance in which connective tissue cells are embedded

3 types of blood cells and functions?

1. RBC- erythrocytes- carry o2 and co2

2. WBC- leukocytes - immunity

3. platelets- stop bleeding

organ?

composed of 2+ tissue types performing specific functions

organ system?

collection or organs performing a task

simplified body plan:

1. purpose?

2. how simplified?

3. how separate inside/outside?

4. 3 intruding "outsides"?

1. simplified to show relationships and distinguish internal/external environments

2. wrong shape, missing parts, cell types not shown

3. inside/outside separated by continuous epithelial membrane

c. GI tract, respiratory, renal

1. what separates inside from outside the body as shown in simplified body plan?

2. air in lungs, food in GI, urine in kidney tubules/bladder are all _____?

1. epithelium

2. outside the body/external environment

internal environment:

1. what is it

2. 2 types/ definitions

1. immediate environment of most cells

2. tissue fluid (interstitial fluid)- fluid around all cells except blood cells

3. plasma- fluid around blood cells

interstitial fluid?

tissue fluid, fluid around all cells except blood cells

1. path of external-internal exchange

2. what is being exchanged in both directions?

1. external <> plasma <> tissue (interstial fluid) <> cell

2. in>: nutrients/o2

3. out<: waste/unneeded material

3 places exchange occurs b/t blood and external environment

1. lungs

2. GI tract

3. Kidneys

mechanisms of exchange:

1. 2 across GI + direction

2. 3 across Kidneys + direction

1a. absorption: out (gut) -> in (blood)

b. secretion: in (blood)-> out (gut)

2. filtration: in (blood) -> out (kidney)

b. reabsorption: out (kidney) -> in (blood)

c. secretion: in (blood) -> out (kidney)

RE = REnal

1. body is divided into _______

2. body compartments contain _____

3. compartments are separated by _______

4. membranes are ________

5. transport occurs b/t _______

1. compartments

2. fluids

3. epithelial membranes

4. semipermeable

5. compartments

5 fluid compartments in the body?

1. TBW = water + dissolved material

2. ICF = fluid inside cells; cytosol

3. ECF = fluid outside cells but inside body; internal environment

4. plasma = fluid outside cells and in blood

5. IF = fluid outside cells and outside blood

body fluid compartment composition:

1. Bodyweight = 60% TBW +40% other

2. TBW = 2/3 ICF + 1/3 ECF

3. ECF = 20% plasma + 80% IF (interstitial fluid)

extracellular fluid is synonymous with ____?

internal environment

homeostasis:

1. definition

2. requires ____?

3. 2 aspects

1. maintaining stable internal environment

2. organ systems integration

3a. regulated variable (temp)

b. set point (37C)

pathophysiology

disruption of homeostasis

error signal

difference b/t set point and the actual value of the regulated variable

1. negative feedback

2a. if regulated variable low, _____

b. if regulated variable high, ____

3. when in an error signal event does neg feedback occur

1. return to set point/range

2a. raise

b. lower

3. occurs upon return to set point/range.. when homeostasis is reached

1. 3 structures/2 steps enable homeostasis?

1. receptor

-(afferent signal)->

2. IC

-(efferent signal)->

3. effector

1. what sends the afferent signal?

2. what sends the efferent signal?

1. receptors, usually sensory neurons

2. IC, usually motor neurons

2 types of signals + speed

1. chemical = slower

2. electrical = fast

receptor? two main types?

1. sensor that detects stimuli

2a. interoreceptors - inside body

b. exteroreceptors - outside boy

integrating center:

1. job?

2. 2 locations?

1. orchestrates an appropriate response

2a. many found in brain

b. some in spinal cord (faster response needed)

effectors? 2 examples?

1. responsible for body responses

2a. muscles (smooth, striated, cardiac)

b. glands

steps negative feedback loop

1. receptor detects change and 2. sends afferent signal to IC

2. IC sends efferent signal to effectors and

5 steps negative feedback

1. receptor detects change

2. receptor afferent signal to IC

3. IC efferent signals effectors

4. effectors produce response back towards homeostasis

5. negative feedback bc norm is already being reached

positive feedback:

1. what is it

2. what direction does the variable move

3. when does it stop

4. example

1. change in the variable is reinforced

2. moves away from the setpoint

3. goes to completion of a goal

4. pituitary secretes LH, ovaries secrete estrogen, repeat until ovulation occurs

heat exhaustion v. heat stroke:

1. different symptom

2. type of feedback

3. treatment outlook

1. (sweating/dizzy/faint) v. (no sweat/delirium)

2. negative v. positive

3. manageable v. 50% death

plasma membrane

barrier b/t cell and external environment

2 main internal compartments of cell? 2 subcompartments

1. nucleus

2. cytoplasm = all fluid/organelles

a. cytosol = fluid only

b. organelles

cytosol

all fluid in cell

4 parts of fluid mosaic model of PM

1. phospholipid bilayer

2. cholesterol

3. membrane proteins

4. membrane carbohydrates

1. basic structure of PM?

2. acts as barrier to what?

3. provides what?

3. how does water interract?

1. phospholipid

2. water soluble substances

3. provide fluidity

4. impermeable to water; aquaporins needed

1. cholesterol 3 jobs in PM

2. diff. b/t integral and peripheral membrane proteins

1a. gives fluidity to PM by interrupting hydrophobic interactions

b. prevent crystallization in cold

c. decreases PM permeability to water

2. integral is hydrophobic

1. lipid soluble = ____, ____, ___

2. water soluble = ___, ___, ___

1. non-polar, lipophilic, hydrophobic

2. polar, hydrophilic, lipophobic

1. lipid or water soluble particles cross PM easy without help from protein?

2. why?

1. lipid soluble

2. most of membrane is lipid tails

amphipathic? necessary to be ___?

1. has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts

2. imbedded into PM it has both too

2(4) types of integral membrane proteins

1. transmembrane proteins

a. channels

b. carrier proteins

2. protein on one side of membrane

a. enzymes

b. receptors

peripheral membrane proteins:

1. most are part of _____

2. most are located _____

3. easily _______ from CM

1. cytoskeleton

2. on cytosolic side of PM

3. dissociated

glycocalyx:

1. what is it

2. what's it made of

2. main function

1. external surface of PM made of membrane carbohydrates

a. glycoproteins- cov bond to prot

b. glycolipids- cov bond to lipid

2. cell recognition; acts as a cell's "brand"

membrane carbohydrates:

1. make up a cell's _____

2. 2 types and difference

3. 2 functions

1. glycocalyx

2a. glycoprotein - cov bonded to proteins

b. glycolipid- cov bound to lipid

3a. glycocalyx

b. cell recognition

3 parts of nucleus structure

1. nuclear envelope

2. nuclear pores

3. nucleolus

2 functions of nucleus?

1. contains DNA- stores genetic code

2. DNA transcribed to RNA- transmission/expression genetic code

site of ribosomal (rRNA) synthesis?

nucleolus

1. 2 parts cytoplasm

cytosol and organelles

cytosol? 3 functions?

1. fluid of cell

2a.store fat/carbs as inclusions

b. store secretory vesicles

c. location of some chemical reactions

5 membraneous organelles. why membrane?

1. ER, Golgi, Mitochondria, Lysosome, peroxisome

2. compartmentaliztion

rough ER:

1. structure

2. function

3. where do its products go

1. flattened sacs w/ ribosomes

2. synthesis of proteins to be packaged into vesicles

3a. exported out of cell,

b. put into PM,

c. destined for organelles

smooth ER:

1. structure

2. 2 functions

3. where in body

1. smooth tubules

2a. lipid synthesis like triglycerides/steroids

b. stores calcium (muscles)

3. specialized like detoxification enzymes in liver

lumens of the 2 ERs are _______. whic his closer to nucleus?

1. continuous, connected

2. RER

2 functions of golgi?

1. post translational protein modification (4 steps)

2. packaging proteins (and other mCs) into Vesicles and directing them to target

mitochondria:

1. does what

2. 2 enzymes / locations

1. ATP

2a. Krebs cycle enzymes in Matrix

b. E- transport chain on cristae of inner membrane

lysosomes:

1. do what?

2. 2 ways how?

1. have enzymes that degrae cellular/extracellular debris

2. degrades EXTRACELLULAR debris via:

a. endocytosis

b. phagocytosis (cell eating)- a type of endocytosis

peroxisomes:

1. function

2. byproduct / how does it fix?

3. reaction

1. degrade waste molecules: aa's, fatty acids, toxic (H2O2)

2. H2O2, has catalase

3. H202 -> 2H2O + O2

catalase is found in ___

peroxisomes

anything that ends with "ase" is an _____

enzyme

Tay-Sachs disease:

1. what causes it

2. what's the result

1. lysosomal enymes are less effective than normal

2. buildup of specific lipids (gangliosides) results in vision loss

4 non-membraneous organelles

ribosomes

vaults

centrioles

cytoskeleton

ribosomes:

1. structure

2. function

3. 2 types/locations

1. small and large subunits, each made of rRNA + proteins

2. make proteins

3a. fixed - attached to RER

b. free - loose in cytosol

are ribosomes / lysosomes anabolic / catabolic?

1. ribosomes anabolic, lysosomes catabolic

vaults:

1. structure

2. 2 functions

1. barrel shaped containing vault "vRNA"

2a. transport mCs b/t nucleus and cytoplasm

b. apoptosis

centrioles function

form mitotic spindle during cell division

cytoskeleton:

1. structure

2. 3 functions

1. lattice of fibrous proteins

2a. support and structure, and movement

b. form adhesions w/ other cells

c. contraction (actin, myosin)

3 filaments of cytoskeleton

1. microfilaments

2. intermediate filaments

3. microtubules

microfilaments:

1. main type

2. 2 main functions

1. actin - thin filament in muscle

2. muscle contraction and movement

b. also sep cytoplasm during cell div.

c. also hair cells (microvilli)

intermediate filament

1. 2 types

1. myosin- thick filament in muscle

2. keratin - skin

microtubles

1. 2 types and their functions

1. mitotic spindle

2. major component of flagella (sperm) and cilia (respiratory tract/oviduct)

protein synthesis outline:

1. 4 steps, location, outcome

2. sub-steps

1. transcription: DNA -> pre-mRNA, in the nucleus

a. initiation

b. elongation

c. termination

2. post transcription modification: pre-mRNA -> mRNA

a. 5' end capping

b. 3' poly A tail addition

c. splicing

d. transport

3. translation: mRNA -> protein, in cytoplasm

a. initiation

b. elongation

c. termination

4. post translation modification: protein -> active protein

a. folding

b. cleavage

c. add chemical (lipid/carb)

d. add leading sequence, if needed

transcription:

1. location and outcome

2. 3 steps and what happens

dsDNA -> sspre-mRNA, in the nucleus

1. initiation- RNApol attaches at PR (promotor region)

2. elongation- RNApol splits dsDNA and transcribes one strand into pre-mRNA at the same time

3. termination- RNApol stops at TR (terminator region)

how many strands of dsDNA is transcribed during transcription

one

post-transcriptional modification

1. location and outcome

2. 4 steps and why

3. 1 alternative step and why

nucleus: pre-mRNA -> mRNA

1a. 5' capping = needed for translation initiation

b. 3' poly-A tail addition = protects against degradation by lysosomes in the cytoplasm

c. splicing = removes useless introns, keeps exons w/ coding regions

-SOMETIMES alternative splicing= reordering exons 123 -> 132, 213, etc. gives diff protein options

d. transport = nucleus -> cytoplasm (where RER is)

start codon

AUG (methionine)

translation:

1. location and outcome

2. 3 steps , what's needed, what happens

mRNA -> protein, in cytoplasm

1. initiation = 5' cap AND start codon needed

a. small ribosomal subunit (rRNA) binds AUG on mRNA

a. tRNA w anticodon complementary to AUG binds (met AA)

c. large ribosomal subunit puts met AA tRNA into P site

2. elongation = requires all 3 RNAs: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

a. new tRNA binds A sight and attaches AA to previous

b. once AAs bonded, P sight release tRNA

3. termination = stop codons, UAA UAG UGA

tRNA:

1. 2 parts structure

2. 2 locations in large ribosome subunit (rRNA)

1a. anticodon on bottom that binds mRNA

b. AA on top to elongate protein

2a. p site = holds tRNA w/ last AA added to polypeptide chain

b. a site= holds tRNA w/ next AA to be added to chain

post-translational modification:

1. location and outcome

4. 4 steps and why

protein -> active protein going to correct location; in cytoplasm

1. folding = prim. -> sec. -> tertiary

a. active shape

2. cleavage = removing parts

a. active form pre-insulin -> insulin

3. add chemicals = add lipids, or carbs (glycosylation)

a. helps folding, stability, cell-cell adhesion

4. add/remove leading sequence = determines destination

a. NO LS = STAYS IN CYTOPLASM

glycosylation

post-translational addition of carbs to a protein

4 steps of packaging proteins

1. smooth ER places proteins into transport vesicles

2. fuse w/ cis face of golgi,

3. travel to trans face of golgi

4. packaged into vesicles where they go to membranes, become lysosomes, etc.

2 mechs of protein synthesis regulation? how?

1. Transcription level

a. induce/repress RNApol binding

2. Translation level

a. activate/inactivate initiating factors (IFs)

initiating factors:

1. what needed for

2. what 2

1. initiation of translation

2. 5' cap and AUG

proteasomes:

function and 3 steps?

1. degrade proteins

2. ubiquitin added to protein, moved to proteasomes, degraded by proteases

ubiquitin

chemical tag that, when added, causes proteins to be moved to proteasome for degradation

metabolism vs. energy metabolism

1. sum of all chemical reactions in a cell

2. involves energy storage and use reactions

endergonic vs. exergonic? enzymes?

1. ender = requires energy, nonspontaneous

a. enzyme

2. exergonic = release free energy, spontaneous

chemical reaction?

direction?

1. reactants (substrates) -> products

2. can be forward reverse or bidirectional

3 parts metabolic pathway

1. initial substrate

2. intermediates

3. end product