Memory, Brain Function, and Research Methods

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the Multi-Store Model, types of memory, biological and cognitive psychology, brain anatomy, and experimental research methodology.

Memory

An information processing system involving the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Sensory memory

An ultra-brief, modality-specific store that holds raw sensory input (iconic or echoic) with virtually unlimited capacity and a duration of ½-second for visual icons or 3–4 seconds for auditory echoes.

Short-term memory (STM)

A limited-capacity workspace holding approximately $7 \times 2$ or $7 \frac{+}{-} 2$ items (specifically $7 \frac{+}{-} 2$ items as noted by Miller, 1956) in conscious awareness for 18–30 seconds without rehearsal.

Long-term memory (LTM)

An effectively unlimited-capacity, potentially lifelong repository for storing knowledge, experiences, and skills.

Multi-Store Model

A classic linear memory model where information flows sequentially from sensory memory to short-term memory (STM) and into long-term memory (LTM), with retrieval looping LTM representations back into STM.

Cognitive Overload

A condition occurring when the amount of incoming information or tasks exceeds working memory capacity, resulting from combined intrinsic and extraneous loads.

Intrinsic Load

The inherent difficulty of material being learned, determined by the number of interacting elements and prior knowledge.

Extraneous Load

Unnecessary mental effort imposed on a learner by poor instructional design, confusing presentation, or distractions.

Maintenance rehearsal

Simple verbal or mental repetition that keeps items active in short-term memory for up to ~30 seconds, useful for short-term retention but weak for long-term transfer.

Elaborative rehearsal

Deep encoding achieved by meaningfully linking new information to pre-existing knowledge to establish durable long-term memories.

Procedural memory

An implicit, non-declarative long-term memory for motor skills and actions (“how” to perform tasks, such as riding a bike).

Episodic memory

An explicit, declarative long-term memory for specific personal events tied to a particular time and place.

Semantic memory

An explicit, declarative long-term memory for general factual knowledge and concepts independent of personal experience.

Declarative memory

A form of long-term memory that involves conscious, intentional recollection of facts, events, and information that can be explicitly declared.

Chunking

An encoding strategy of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units to bypass short-term memory capacity limitations.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique relying on spatial memory and visual imagery to organize and recall items.

Narrative chaining

A mnemonic encoding strategy that connects target items together into a continuous narrative story.

Acoustic Encoding

The mental process of holding and encoding auditory or sound information.

Visual Encoding

The mental process of holding and encoding visual images.

Semantic Encoding

The mental process of encoding the specific meaning of information.

Forgetting curve

A mathematical graph formulated by Ebbinghaus (1885) demonstrating rapid initial memory loss immediately following learning, followed by a gradual decay over time.

Cognitive approach

A psychological perspective focused on internal mental processes, comparing human cognition to a computer system operating via Input (encoding) -> Processing (storage) -> Output (retrieval).

Biological approach

A psychological perspective asserting that all psychological phenomena have a physical origin based in anatomy, genetics, neurochemistry, and the central nervous system.

Genotype

An individual's unique genetic composition and instructions inherited directly from their biological parents.

Equal Environments Assumption (EEA)

The assumption in twin research that monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins experience environmental influences to an equal degree.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter essential for learning and memory; diminished levels are connected to Alzheimer's disease.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

The persistent strengthening of synaptic connections resulting from repeated neural activation, providing a biological foundation for learning and memory.

Corpus Callosum

A dense bridge of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres that enables interhemispheric communication.

Cerebellum

A brain structure located beneath the cerebrum responsible for balance, posture, and motor coordination.

Brain stem

A vital brain region comprising the pons (regulating breathing) and medulla oblongata (regulating heart rate and blood pressure).

Frontal lobe

The anterior lobe of the brain involved in personality, self-control, logic, and emotion, which houses the motor cortex for voluntary movement.

Parietal lobe

The cerebral lobe involved in somatosensory processing, bodily sensations, and spatial/visual perception.

Occipital lobe

The posterior cerebral lobe dedicated to visual processing, receiving visual information directly from the eyes.

Temporal lobe

The cerebral lobe that processes hearing, speech, language comprehension, and memory functions.

Localisation of brain function

The principle that distinct, specific areas of the brain are specialized to perform dedicated psychological or physical tasks.

Gyri and Sulci

The bumps (gyri) and grooves (sulci) across the folded cerebral cortex that maximize surface area to fit more neurons within the skull.

Broca's area

A specific region in the left cerebral hemisphere that controls speech production, language processing, and facial motor movement.

Lateralisation of function

The specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres, wherein each half of the brain performs distinct cognitive and motor tasks.

Asymmetrical function

The structural and functional inequality between the left and right brain hemispheres regarding their specialized responsibilities.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord that coordinates sensory processing and motor commands.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers secreted by terminal buttons across synaptic gaps to communicate messages to neighboring neurons or target cells.

Dopamine

A key neurotransmitter associated with regulation of movement, motivation, pleasure, and reward mechanisms.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep cycles, and appetite.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that acts to reduce neural excitability, calm brain activity, and lower anxiety.

Synaptic transmission

The process by which neurotransmitters are released by a presynaptic neuron, travel across the synaptic gap, and bind to receptors on a postsynaptic neuron.

Synapse

The microscopic junction separating adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted.

Limbic System

A subcortical neural network comprising the thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala that governs emotional responses and processing.

Metacognition

The capacity for high-level self-awareness characterized by thinking about one's own thinking processes.

Semantic Network Theory

A theory proposing that permanent long-term memory depends on integrating new knowledge into a web of pre-existing, interconnected concept nodes.

Random sampling

A sampling method where every member of a target population has an equal probability of being chosen for a study.

Systematic sampling

A sampling technique in which participants are chosen systematically by selecting every nth entry from an ordered population list.

Stratified sampling

A sampling method where a population is divided into subgroups (strata) and participants are randomly sampled from each stratum proportional to the population.

Cluster sampling

A sampling strategy where the population is divided into naturally occurring clusters and entire clusters are randomly selected for investigation.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling technique selecting participants who are easiest to access or readily available.

Voluntary response sampling

A sampling method reliant on individuals choosing themselves to join a study.

Independent groups design

An experimental setup using separate, non-overlapping groups of participants for each condition.

Repeated measures design

An experimental design where the exact same participants complete all conditions of the study.

Matched pairs design

An experimental design in which participants are paired based on key characteristics, with one person from each pair allocated to a different condition.

Schemas

Cognitive structures and mental frameworks that organize background knowledge and guide information processing.

Reconstructive Memory

The conceptual model indicating that memory retrieval is an active process of rebuilding past events using stored details and schemas rather than reproducing exact recordings.

Hippocampus

A core subcortical structure within the limbic system crucial for consolidating short-term memory traces into permanent long-term storage.