AP Lang - Logical Fallacies and book stuff that was bolded

Ad Hominem

a personal attack of an individual instead of the issue at hand.

Ex: You're so morally bankrupt that you could never run our city!

Bandwagon (ad populum)

Urge the audience to accept a position because a majority of people already do. Ex: everyone has a Facebook account -- you should too.

Begging the question

Assumes the idea you are trying to prove. Ex: my best friend will vouch for me. you can trust her -- I've known her forever.

Cause/Effect

Assumes that the effect is related to the cause because the events occur together. Ex: lack of religion is associated with increased rates of depression. Therefore lack of religion directly causes increased rates of depression.

Circular Reasoning

A claim repeated as a way to provide evidence. Ex: this cake I baked is delicious because I'm an excellent Baker.

Double standard

A set of principles permits greater opportunities or Liberties to one than the other. Ex: the teacher lets all the boys bring candies to lunch but not the girls.

Either / or thinking ( false dilemma)

Implies that one of two negative outcomes is inevitable. Ex: either you eat fast food and develop health problems or you eat healthy food and never enjoy a tasty meal again.

Equivocation

Allows a keyword or term in an argument to have different meanings during the course of the argument. Ex: the sign said "fine for parking here" so because it was fine, I parked there.

False analogy

Comparing two things without an appropriate basis. Ex: we put animals who are in pain out of their misery; we should do the same for people.

Faulty causality

Makes a fallacious connection between effects and antecedents or the assumption that because one event follows another, the second event is why. Ex: if this person is elected president, then flooding will surely happen.

False dilemma

The speaker presents two extreme positions as the only possible options when others exist. Ex: either we agree to raise taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.

Hasty generalization

Bases an inference on too small a sample as the basis for a broader generalization. Ex: squirrels are dangerous. I saw one try to bite a cat.

Loaded language

A word or phrase is loaded when it has a secondary, evaluative meaning in addition to its primary descriptive meaning.

Non sequitur (does not follow)

Irrelevant reasons are offered to support claim. Ex: i know she stole my iPhone -- she wasn't even at school today.

Red herring

Introduces a topic unrelated to the claim. Ex: schools don't need more funding; schools will never be perfect. Similarly, last week, I tried to bowl a perfect game and it was impossible. Perfection and education were anywhere is impossible.

Slippery slope

Assumes a chain reaction of events which result in a terrible outcome. Ex: if I fund your organization, I'll have to find others and then our city will be completely bankrupt.

Strawman

States an opponent's argument in an exaggerated form, or attacking a weaker, irrelevant portion of an opponent's argument. Ex: my opponent says we need to limit our Reliance on fossil fuels. If we can't use natural gas, this state will grind to a standstill.

You Also (tu quoque)

Asserts that a statement is false because it is inconsistent with what the speaker has said or done. Ex: how can you tell me not to smoke when you used to smoke?

Appeal to doubtful / false Authority

Occurs when people use the ideas of non-experts to support their arguments. Ex: movie stars or recording artists give their opinions about politics, climate change, or foreign Affairs -- things they may know little about -- they're not speaking as experts; therefore they have no authority.

Misuse of statistics

Occurs when data are misrepresented. statistics can be used persuasively in an argument, but sometimes they are distorted -- intentionally or unintentionally -- to make a point. Ex: Four out of five dentists recommend Crest toothpaste. (The statement neglects to mention the number of dentists surveyed in order to achieve that statistic)

Argument

a persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

Rogerian arguments

based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

Claim

states the argument’s main idea or position
must be arguable

Claims of fact

assert that something is true or not true

Claims of value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable

Claims of policy

proposal of change

Closed Thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make

Open Thesis

a thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay

Counterargument Thesis

a summary of a counterargument precedes the writer’s opinion