Moral Philosophy and Ethics: Relativism, Duty, and Political Regimes

Vocabulary flashcards covering key philosophical concepts from the lecture notes, including the relativity of good and evil, Kantian deontology, Rousseau's theory of pity, utilitarian ethics, and Hannah Arendt's analysis of totalitarianism and the banality of evil.

Myth of the Ring of Gyges

A philosophical myth illustrating that human beings act justly only out of fear of punishment rather than love of justice; when granted invisibility, an individual succumbs to injustice.

"If God does not exist, everything is permitted" (Foundational Reasons)

A philosophical claim supported by two reasons: 1. Without transcendent divine laws, all laws are merely relative and human; 2. God is omniscient and provides an ultimate sanction (the Last Judgment) that no one can escape.

Piety

A rule lacking moral scope that focuses strictly on observing religious rituals to move toward God.

Virtue

A rule possessing moral scope that actively guides an individual's ethical conduct and behavior toward others.

Religious Hypocrisy

Observing religious rituals or projecting an outward appearance of faith without acting morally in practice, showing that faith and morality do not necessarily have a direct link.

Postulates of Practical Reason (Kant)

Undemonstrable propositions (specifically God and the immortality of the soul) that reason requires us to accept in moral matters to give purpose to human action and prevent despair.

Ethnocentrism (Weak Sense)

Judging foreign cultures strictly by the standards and norms of one's own culture, which distorts perspective and prevents genuine appreciation of their distinctiveness.

Ethnocentrism (Strong Sense)

An aggressive attitude of rejection that devalues or animalizes foreign cultures, extending to viewing outsiders as irrational animals.

Barbarian (Etymology and Common Meaning)

Derived from the Greek term meaning 'one who speaks gibberish'; commonly refers to someone who is cruel and uncultured.

Savage (Etymology and Common Meaning)

Derived from the Latin term meaning 'from the forest'; commonly denotes someone brutal, uncivilized, and close to the state of nature.

Paradox of Tolerance

The philosophical dilemma that tolerating absolutely everything requires tolerating the intolerant, which ultimately destroys tolerance itself.

Limits of Cultural Relativism

Two major shortcomings: 1. Confusing ordinary social customs with severe violations against the human person; 2. Adopting an overly rigid, static view of culture, which naturally evolves and opens up.

Pity (Rousseau)

A natural and innate sensible feeling of repugnance toward seeing other beings suffer, which guides moral action independently of religious doctrine.

Tyranny (Arendt)

The arbitrary power exercised by a single ruler who governs through fear in pursuit of their own self-interest.

Dictatorship (Arendt)

A temporary form of exceptional emergency power.

Totalitarianism (Arendt)

A modern political regime that seeks total control over both private life and internal thought through terror and ideology.

Ideology (Arendt)

A rigid, univocal logic within which an individual becomes trapped, viewing themselves merely as an obedient functionary carrying out orders while disconnected from reality.

Banality of Evil (Arendt)

The concept that great evil can be committed by ordinary people without personal hatred or monstrous motives, arising instead from conformism, blind obedience, and the absence of critical thinking.

Utilitarian Moral Criterion

A consequentialist ethical principle holding that an action is good if it generates the greatest sum of happiness for the greatest number of people and reduces suffering.

Sacrificial Critique of Utilitarianism

A criticism arguing that utilitarianism constitutes a sacrificial morality, as it can justify sacrificing the rights or life of an innocent individual if it serves the majority.

Deontological Moral Criterion (Kant)

An ethical framework based on duty, asserting that an action is intrinsically good based on its principle and intention, completely independent of its consequences.

Moral Duty and Freedom (Kant)

The principle that obeying a rational moral duty imposed upon oneself (autonomy) liberates an individual from selfish desires, which constitutes genuine freedom.

Acting in Conformity with Duty (Kant)

Performing a morally correct action driven by personal interest, fear, or external motive rather than moral obligation.

Acting Out of Duty (Kant)

Performing a morally good action strictly out of pure respect for the moral law itself, free of any self-interest.