Criminal offending - Part 2

What is the impact of sexual abuse? (4, one main one, 2 more specific ones, 1 sort of repeat)

General, non-specific risk for psychopathology - includes significant risk of wide range medical, psychological, behavioural, and sexual disorders.

PTSD, depression, suicide, sexual promiscuity, victim-perpetrator cycle, poor academic performance

Impacts on adult interpersonal functioning

Long-term trauma symptoms

Psychologically meaningful risk factors involve what two things?

Strong evidence of prediction AND a plausible rationale that is a cause

What are psychologically meaningful risk factors? What can they be likened to? How do behaviours of interest arise?

• Individual propensities that may or may not manifest;

• Can be likened to traits (i.e., long-term, enduring characteristics that lead to predictable expressions of thoughts, feelings, or behaviours)

• Behaviour of interest arises only through interactions with the environment - opportunities or facilitation

What does a psychologically meaningful risk factor have to demonstrate to be considered “supported”?

Effect has to be more than trivial - .15

What are “supported” psychologically meaningful risk factors? (5/11)

Sexual preoccupation

Any deviant sexual interest

Offence-supportive attitudes

Emotional congruence with children

Lack of adult relationships

Impulsivity

General self-regulation problems

Poor problem solving

Resistance to rules/superiority

Grievance/hostility

Negative social influences

Hostility towards women

Sexualised coping

Externalised coping

What are “promising” risk factors? What are examples?

Risk factors that, in the future, may be “supported”

Machiavellianism

Callousness

Hostility towards women, sexualised coping, and externalised coping are now supported

What are single-factor theories for sexual offending?

Deviant sexual preferences

Intimacy deficits

Cognitive distortions

Deficient victim empathy

What is the deviant sexual preferences theory of sexual offending? How is it proposed these are acquired?

Deviant sexual behaviour is a direct product of deviant sexual preference.

Basic learning principles and neurobiology

How do basic learning principles relate to the acquisition of deviant sexual preferences? However, the majority of people what?

Conditioning and reinforcement: Idea that repeated pairing of pleasurable state + a condition stimulus may lead to conditioning (deliberate or circumstantial)

This is maintained by fantasy

Can also be acting out things that were seen (modelling)

Majority of people exposed to these kinds of experiences in childhood do not go on to develop deviant sexual preferences

What ideas followed the concept of deviant sexual preferences in intervention?

If it was learnt, it can be ‘unlearned’ — now, treatment has a wider range of targets than purely behavioural

What are examples of reconditioning techniques for deviant sexual preferences theory?

Aversive conditioning - pairing the deviant fantasy w/ aversive stimulus

Covert sensitization - pairing imagined target behaviour with imagined unpleasant outcome

Masturbatory reconditioning - thematic shift, where client masturbates to deviant theme then switches to non-deviant theme just prior to orgasm

Directed masturbation - directed masturbation solely to non-deviant themes

Verbal satiation - repeated verbalisation of deviant fantasies in absense of reinforcement

What is the intimacy deficits theory of sexual offending? What are the 2 dichotomies? How does this relate to attachment styles?

Attachment styles from childhood endure and are reflected in adult attachment style

Model of self + model of others

Each style is proposed to relate to a distinct type of sexual offending

• (Except secure)

• Dismissive/avoidant - hostility, violence against adult women

• Preoccupied/ambivalent - tend to seek approval from others, sexualise attachment relationships, leading to sexual contact w/ children

• Unresolved/disorganised - Tend to choose to seek intimacy through impersonal sexual encounters. Sexual offending one of many different strategies of externally based control in response to intense emotional states

What is the clinical utility of the intimacy deficits theory of sexual offending?

W/ disorganised + preoccupied associated with emotional loneliness, this could be important to work on clinically.

Dismissive is linked w/ high fear of intimacy

Some programs involve teaching clients about styles, assisting them in self-identification, and discussing how it has influenced their relationship exp

What are multifactorial theories for sexual offending?

Finkelhor’s Preconditions

Ward & Siegert’s Pathways

Ward & Beech’s ITSO-R

Seto’s Motivation-Facilitation

What was Finkelhor’s Precondition Model the first to do?

Acknowledge the complexity of the phenomenon of sexual offending

Incorporate situational/contextual variables

Informs individualised treatment - If different people have different contexts, pathways, motivations, and trajectories, of course treatment will be different

Finkelhor’s Precondition model proposed what consistent underlying factors are apparent across different accounts of deviant sexual behaviour?

3 Motivational Factors

• Emotional satisfaction

• Sexually aroused by children

• Unable to meet sexual needs appropriately

1 Factor associated with translation of motivational factors into action

• Disinhibition

These factors combine with contextual factors. Can operate in coordination or separately.

What are Finkelhor’s Four Preconditions? How do they relate to the occurrence of offending?

1. Motivation to sexually abuse (for instance, the consistent underlying factors of emotional satisfaction, sexual arousal, & blockage)

2. Overcoming internal inhibitors (which can stop even those with the motivation; to do with self-control)

3. Overcoming external inhibitors (for ex., accessibility)

4. Overcoming victim resistance

All four are necessary for offending — aka, each one is necessary but not sufficient on their own without the others. Thus, each can be targeted.

What are the three basic motivations to sexually abuse, according to Finkelhor’s Precondition Model?

1. Emotional congruence — emotional/intimacy/connection needs that are sought to be met, that the offender thinks can be met by children (safer, maybe on same level of development/maturity, or easier to control)

2. Sexual arousal - usually includes powerful learning mechanisms with repeated reinforcement. Around ½ of convicted offenders are motivated by some element of arousal.

3. Blockage - sexual needs sought being met that are not otherwise met except through the sexual offending. Blockage could be fear of rejection, social skills, relationship dysfunction, & guilt. Does not require that sexual need to be of children

According to Finkelhor’s Precondition Model, without _________, we ____________.

A motivation of some kind, which does not have to be a paraphilia or attraction, we don’t have a sexual offense

What are ways that one might overcome internal inhibitors in Finkelhor’s Precondition Model?

Intoxication (particularly alcohol)

Poor impulse control

Senility

Psychosis

Severe stress

Cognitive distortions — i.e., not seeing it as wrong, seeing it as “good” for both parties

How do offenders overcome external inhibitors, according to Finkelhor’s Precondition Model?

Garnering caregiver trust

Getting the child alone

Limited/poor supervision

Lack of social supports

How do offenders overcome victim resistance, according to Finkelhor’s Precondition Model?

Gifts

Gradual sexual desensitisation

Encouraging emotional dependence

Threats/violence

Ward & Siegert’s Pathways model takes a ______ approach, and proposes what

A “theory-knitting approach”

A # of distinct etiological pathways (w/ distinct risk/vulnerability factors), each w/ own set of core dysfunctional mechanisms

What should be noted about the pathways proposed by Ward & Siegert?

Each category can be broken down further—’pathways’ are merely clusters of clinical phenomena, and some can fall into multiple pathways

What are Ward & Siegert’s Pathways? (5)

1. Intimacy deficits

2. Deviant sexual scripts

3. Emotional dysreguation

4. Antisocial cognitions

5. Multiple dysfunctional mechanisms

According to Ward & Siegert’s Pathways Model, each pathway is associated with different _____ and ____ profiles, each reflecting separate _____.

psychological; behavioural; etiologies

According to Ward & Seigert’s Pathways theory, how do causal mechanisms relate to symptoms?

The relevant primary causal mechanism will result in a unique set of symptoms

What contributes to vulnerability in Ward & Siegert’s Pathways Model?

Common clusters

• Deviant sexual arousal

• Intimacy deficits

• Inappropriate emotions

• Cognitive distortions

Other contextual factors

• Family environment

• Biological factors

• Learning history

• Cultural issues

Describe Ward & Siegert’s Pathway 1 - Intimacy Deficits (5)

• Normal sexual scripts

• Insecure attachments resulting in problems w/ adult relationships

• Develops maladaptive strategies to avoid unsuccessful adult relationships

• Intimacy deficits + feelings of loneliness

• Substitutes child as a surrogate partner

Describe Ward & Siegert’s Pathway 2: Deviant Sexual Scripts

• Distorted sexual scripts interacting w/ dysfunctional relationship schema

• Premature sexualisation (early learning experiences incl exposure to sexual matters or abuse)

• Sex/intimacy confusion (merging/fusing of sex and intimacy)

• Vulnerability translates to sexual need

• Relationships, even friendships, perceived in sexual terms

• Relationships ultimately unsatisfying and non-lasting, equalling periods of rejection

Describe Ward & Siegert’s Pathway 3: Emotional Dysregulation

• Normal sexual scripts

• Problems with emotional regulation

• Emotional structures unidentified + uncontrolled

• Early established link between sex + emotional wellbeing

• Sex used as soothing strategy

• Unable to mobilise social support when stressed

• increased anger and emotional dysregulation

• Child used to satisfy sexual need and punish partner

Describe Ward & Siegert’s Pathway 4: Antisocial cognitions

• Normal sexual scripts

• Antisociality and procriminal attitudes and beliefs

• “I can do what I want and I can get my needs met”, disregard of social norms

• Patriarchal attitudes and sense of own superiority

• Exploits opportunities to self gratify

Describe Ward & Siegert’s Pathway 5: Multiple Dysfunctional Mechanisms

• Distorted sexual scripts

• Idealised relationships

• Dysfunctional ideas about children’s sexuality

• Deviant sexual arousal generated by sexual scripts

• Increased self esteem based on perceived legitimacy of action — i.e., feel good about themselves because don’t see it as a problem (“We both feel good”)

What should be noted about Ward & Siegert’s Pathways Model?

Model is more descriptive than etiological

How does Ward & Beech’s ITSO model differ from previous models (Finkelhor, Ward & Siegert)

Attempts to advance etiological explanation with regard to implicated factors as opposed to simply description

More broad, incorporating research relation to human behaviour more generally

What does Ward & Beech’s ITSO theory incorporate?

The impact of

• biological factors

• Ecological factors

• and their interaction

on individual’s (neuro)psychological functioning

and subsequent clinical symptomology pertaining to risk (i.e., deviant arousal, cognitive distortions, emotional & social difficulties)

Describe Ward & Beech’s ITSO model

Biological Functioning and Social learning contribute to Interlocking neuropsychological functions (motivation/emotional, action selection and control, perception and memory) to result in clinical symptoms.

This results in sexual offending, which is maintained and escalated through social learning in a feedback loop.

What biological functioning influences contribute to neuropsychological functions, according to Ward & Beech’s ITSO?

Brain development

• Genetics

• Evolution

What social learning influences contribute to neuropsychological functions, according to Ward & Beech’s ITSO?

Ecological niche: proximal and distal factors

• Social & Cultural environment

• Personal circumstances

• Physical environment

What are interlocking neuropsychological functions, according to Ward & Beech’s ITSO model?

Motivation/Emotional → Action selection and control → perception and memory → repeat

What are clinical symptoms/state factors, according to Ward & Beech’s ITSO?

Emotional problems

Social difficulties

Cognitive distortion

Deviant arousal

What is a summary of Ward & Beech’s ITSO theory?

Brain development and social learning interact to establish an individual’s level of psychological functioning

Such functioning may be compromised in some way, causing difficulties w/ adaptive functioning, leading to problematic psychological functioning and clinical symptomology

Sexual offending can result

Consequences can, in turn, serve to maintain and/or escalate further harmful sexual behaviours

What is Seto’s Motivation-Facilitation Model?

Identifies primary motivations for sexual offences, as well as trait + state factors that facilitate acting on these when there are opportunities

What is Seto’s Motivation-Facilitation Model influenced by?

Finkelhor’s model, and self-control based general theory of crime

What are Seto’s M-F Model’s three primary sexual motivations?

Paraphilias (i.e., intense, recurrent, and unusual sexual interest in atypical sexual activities or objects) - Compare to Finkelhor’s deviant sexual preferences

High sex drive (relative to norms and clinically problematic)

Intense mating effort (novelty seeking in mates due to evolutionary biology)

What are facilitation factors, according to Seto?

Those factors that overcome any trait or state inhibitions against acting upon motivations

What are examples of trait facilitation factors, according to Seto?

Self-regulation problems, such as impulsivity or recklessness

Hostile masculinity (misogynistic attitudes and beliefs, suspicion and hostility to women, view women as adversaries)

What are examples of state facilitation factors, according to Seto?

Negative affect (anger, stress, low mood)

Alcohol use (disinhibiting effect, increased opportunity)

High sexual arousal

What is the person-environment interaction in Seto’s Motivation-Facilitation model?

Strongly motivated individuals more likely to seek out or create opportunities

What are situational factors, according to Seto’s Motivation-Facilitation Model?

State facilitation factors that exist outside the person and interact w/ personal facilitation factors

What are examples of situational-factors, according to Seto’s M-F model?

Vulnerable victims (father absence/blended families, lower income/family stressors, social isolation)

Lack of presence of guardians who could intervene

Time and place factors (afternoon/evening, homes)