Foundations of Psychological Science Exam 2

Dendrites

receive messages from neurons (the receiver)

Cell Body (soma)

keeps the neuron alive and processes incoming messages (control center)

Axon

carries the electrical signal away from the cell body (sender)

Myelin Sheath

fatty covering around the axon that speeds up signals (insulator)

Axon Terminals

release neurotransmitters to communicate with the next cell (end station)

Synapse

where neurons communicate; neurotransmitters cross the gap (gap)

Agonist

activates a receptor, mimicking a neurotransmitter’s effect

Antagonist

blocks a receptor, preventing a neurotransmitter from activating

Reuptake

when sending neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters after releasing them into the synaptic gap, it clears the gap and allows reuse.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that carry signals between cells

Message Travels

Dendrites → Cell Body → Axon → Axon Terminals → Neurotransmitters across the gap → Receptors on the next cell

Neuron

a nerve cell that receives and sends information

Receptors

receive matching neurotransmitters

Sensory/Afferent Neuron

carry information to the brain or spinal cord

Interneurons

connect neurons with the brain and spinal cord

Motor/Efferent Neuron

carry instructions from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands

Resting Potential

the neuron’s electrical state when it is not firing; about -70mV

Threshold

the level of stimulation needed to trigger firing

Action Potential

electrical impulse traveling down the axon

All-or-None Response

a neuron fires fully or does not fire

Refractory Period

brief recovery period after firing

Excitatory Signal

makes the receiving neuron more likely to fire

Inhibitory Signal

makes the receiving neuron less likely to fire

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates responses

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

nerves outside the brain and spinal cord connects the CNS to the body

Somatic Nervous System

carries sensory information and controls skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

regulates automatic internal functions

Sympathetic Divison

prepares the boy for action: fight or flight

Parasympathetic Divison

helps the body recover: rest and digest

Organization

the PNS includes the somatic and autonomic systems; the autonomic system includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic division

Nervous System

uses electrical signals and neurotransmitters; generally fast and targeted

Endocrine System

glands release hormones into the bloodstream; effects are generally slower and long-lasting

Pituitary Gland

“master gland” that helps control other glands

Adrenal Glands

release stress hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol

Hypothalamus

links the nervous and endocrine system

Acetylcholine (ACh)

muscle movement, learning, memory

Dopamine

movement, reward, motivation, attention learning

Serotonin

mood, sleep, hunger

Norepinephrine

alertness, arousal, stress response

GABA

main inhibitory neurotransmitters; reduces neural activity

Glutamate

main excitatory neurotransmitter; learning and memory

Endorphins

help reduce pain and contribute to pleasure

Reuptake Blocker

stops a neurotransmitter from being taken back up as quickly, leaving it available longer

Brainstem

connects brain and spinal cord; supports basic survival functions

Medulla

regulates breathing, heart rate, swallowing

Pons

sleep + coordination

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

helps regulate alertness and consciousness

Cerebellum

balance, coordination, timing, learned movement skills

Hypothalamus

regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormones

Amygdala

processes emotional significance, especially threats and fear

Hippocampus

helps from new long-term memories and navigate spaces

Cerebrum

large brain region involved in thinking, perception, and voluntary movement

Cerebral Cortex

outer layer of the cerebrum

Corpus Callosum

connects the two cerebral hemispheres

Limbic System

A group of interconnected structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus

Homeostasis

keeping the body’s internal conditions balanced

Frontal Lobe

planning, judging, impulse control, voluntary movement, speech production

Parietal Lobe

touch, body position, spatial awareness

Temporal Lobe

hearing, understanding language, memory

Occipital Lobe

vision

Prefrontal Cortex

planning, decision-making, working memory. and controlling impulses

Broca’s areas

speech production; damage can make speech slow and difficult

Wernicke’s area

language comprehension; damage can lead to fluent speech that does not make sense

Left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body

Right hemisphere

controls the left side

Neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change and reorganize its connections through learning and experience

Neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

Stress

a response to something perceived as threatening or demanding

Stressor

the event or situation causing stress

Acute stress

short-term stress

Chronic stress

Ongoing, long-lasting stress

Cognitive Appraisal

your judgement of a situation and your ability to handle it

Hassles

small everyday stressors

The _____ activates the ____________.

hypothalamus; sympathetic nervous system

The ________ releases _______ and ________ .

adrenal medulla; epinephrine; norepinephrine

Epinephrine = ? Norepinphrine = ?

adrenaline; noradrenaline

HPA

hypothalamus → pituitary → adrenal cortex

Cortisol

makes energy available and regulates the stress response

effects of long-term stress

• Can weaken immune defenses.

• Can interfere with sleep, mood, appetite, learning, and memory.

• Can affect hippocampal functioning.

• Can contribute to cardiovascular strain.

Lymphocytes

White blood cells involved in defending the body against illness.