Locke & Ree

(Locke) What is Locke's overall philosophical project?

To explain how human beings gain ideas and knowledge through experience and to determine the limits of human knowledge.

(Locke) What is empiricism?

The view that knowledge and ideas come primarily from experience.

(Locke) What does Locke mean by "tabula rasa"?

The mind begins as a blank slate without innate ideas, and experience supplies our ideas.

(Locke) What does Locke mean by an "idea"?

The contents of the mind; the things we think about, perceive, remember, or imagine.

(Locke) Where do simple ideas come from according to Locke?

From experience through sensation and reflection.

(Locke) What is the difference between simple and complex ideas?

Simple ideas cannot be broken into other ideas, while complex ideas are combinations of simple ideas.

(Locke) What is the difference between an idea and a quality?

An idea is something in the mind; a quality is a property or power in an external object that produces an idea in us.

(Locke) What are primary qualities?

Qualities that actually exist in objects, such as solidity, extension, shape, number, and motion or rest.

(Locke) What are secondary qualities?

Powers in objects that produce sensations in us, such as colors, sounds, tastes, smells, and heat.

(Locke) What is the key difference between primary and secondary qualities?

Primary qualities exist in objects and resemble our ideas of them; secondary qualities are powers in objects that produce sensations that do not resemble properties existing in the objects.

(Locke) Why does Locke say color is a secondary quality?

An object's physical properties cause us to experience a color, but the color we experience does not literally exist in the object as we perceive it.

(Locke) What example does Locke use to show that secondary qualities depend on the perceiver?

The same water can feel hot to one hand and cold to another, showing that heat and cold are sensations produced in us.

(Locke) What does Locke mean when he says secondary qualities are "powers"?

Objects have physical properties that give them the power to produce particular sensations in our minds.

(Locke) What is Locke's problem with the idea of "substance"?

We assume qualities must exist in some underlying substance, but we do not have a clear idea of what that substance actually is.

(Locke) What does Locke mean by "substance" as an "unknown support"?

We assume there is something underneath qualities that supports them, but we do not know exactly what that something is.

(Locke) How does Locke form our idea of particular substances, such as gold or a horse?

We combine the simple ideas or qualities that we repeatedly experience together and assume they belong to one underlying substance.

(Locke) How does Locke know that external objects exist?

Our senses receive ideas that we cannot simply control or create at will, which indicates that something outside our minds causes them.

(Locke) What is Locke's argument that sensory experience gives us knowledge of external objects?

Sensory ideas are forced upon us, are connected to pleasure and pain, and are confirmed by multiple senses, showing that external things cause them.

(Locke) What is the limit of our knowledge of external things according to Locke?

We can know that something exists when our senses are currently affected by it, but we cannot have certainty about things that are not currently being sensed.

(Locke) What is the difference between knowledge and probability for Locke?

Knowledge requires sufficient certainty, while probability is reasonable belief based on evidence but does not reach certainty.

(Ree) What is Rée's main argument about free will?

Rée argues that free will does not exist because every act of will is caused by prior conditions. Nothing happens without a sufficient cause.

(Ree) What does Rée mean by saying an action is an "absolute beginning"?

An action would be an "absolute beginning" if it were not caused by anything that came before it. Rée says genuinely free actions would have to be absolute beginnings, but no such actions exist.

(Ree) What is determinism according to Rée?

Determinism is the view that everything that happens, including human thoughts, choices, and actions, is necessarily caused by prior conditions.

(Ree) What is a sufficient cause?

A sufficient cause is a condition that, when present, necessarily produces its effect.

(Ree) What is the difference between a necessary condition and a sufficient condition?

A necessary condition must be present for something to happen, while a sufficient condition guarantees that it will happen.

(Ree) How does Rée use the donkey example to argue against free will?

The donkey appears to choose between two bundles of hay, but its choice is determined by its brain, hunger, sensory experiences, physical condition, and environment. If the causes were different, its action would be different.

(Ree) Why does Rée compare humans to animals and stones?

He is not saying humans are exactly like stones. His point is that humans, animals, and stones are all subject to causation. Human actions are more complicated because their causes include thoughts, feelings, and other internal conditions.

(Ree) Why does the donkey's choice seem less determined than the movement of a stone?

The causes of the stone's movement are visible, while the causes of the donkey's decision are mostly internal and invisible.

(Ree) Why do we mistakenly believe our actions are free?

Because we do not see all of the causes behind our thoughts and decisions. Since we are unaware of the causes, we mistakenly think there were no causes.

(Ree) What does Rée mean when he says "I could have acted otherwise"?

It can be true in the sense that another action was possible if the circumstances had been different. But given the exact circumstances and causes that actually existed, the action that occurred was necessary.

(Ree) What does Rée mean by "I can do what I want"?

It is true in one sense: if I want to perform an action, I can usually perform it. But the wanting itself was also caused, so it does not prove that the will is free.

(Ree) Why doesn't a person's ability to resist their passions disprove determinism?

Because the decision to resist a passion is itself caused by things such as principles, upbringing, experiences, and other thoughts and feelings.

(Ree) What does Rée mean when he says willing is both a cause and an effect?

Willing causes actions, but the act of willing is itself caused by previous thoughts, feelings, experiences, and conditions.

(Ree) What does Rée think causes human actions?

Human actions are caused by thoughts, sensations, feelings, bodily conditions, inherited characteristics, upbringing, experiences, and external circumstances.

(Ree) How does Rée explain a person's character?

Character is the necessary result of inherited characteristics and experiences throughout a person's life.

(Ree) What does determinism imply about moral responsibility?

If every action is causally determined, Rée argues that people cannot legitimately be morally blamed or praised for their actions.

(Ree) Does Rée think we should stop liking or disliking people's actions?

No. We can still like or dislike actions and people. What determinism removes is the idea that people deserve moral praise or blame for actions that were causally determined.

(Ree) How does Rée distinguish dislike from moral blame?

Dislike means having a negative reaction to something. Moral blame means saying someone deserves punishment or condemnation. Rée thinks dislike can remain even after moral blame is rejected.

(Ree) How does Rée explain actions performed from a sense of duty?

Even a person who acts from duty does so because of their upbringing, beliefs, conscience, inherited traits, and experiences. Therefore, acting from duty is still causally determined.

(Ree) What is Rée's final conclusion about moral praise and blame?

Rée concludes that human character, intentions, and actions are effects of prior causes, so they cannot legitimately receive moral praise or blame. We can still like or dislike them.

(Locke) What makes someone the same human being over time? What can change?

The same human being continues through the life of the same living body. The body's matter can change while the human being stays the same.

(Locke) What makes someone the same person over time? What is not enough by itself?

Memory and consciousness make someone the same person over time. Having the same body or the same substance is not enough by itself.

(Locke) How are Locke's two criteria different?

Being the same human being depends on the continued life of the body, while being the same person depends on consciousness and awareness of past experiences.

(Locke) What do the two cases show about the relationship between being the same human being and being the same person?

The cases show that someone can be the same human being but not the same person, or be the same person in a different body if their consciousness and memories transfer.

(Locke) Why might it matter whether we are dealing with the same human being or the same person regarding moral responsibility?

It matters because Locke connects responsibility to personal identity and consciousness. The person must be conscious of the past action for it to count as their action.

(Ree) What explains why we act the way we act?

Our actions are explained by prior causes, such as our thoughts, feelings, desires, and brain activity.

(Ree) According to Rée, what explains why the donkey turns toward the hay? Trace the explanation as far back as the passage allows.

The donkey feels hungry and sees the hay. These affect its brain, which sends signals through its nerves, causing its muscles to move and turn toward the hay.

(Ree) In Rée's explanation, is the donkey's wanting a cause, an effect, or both? Explain.

It is both. The donkey's wanting causes it to move, but the wanting is also caused by hunger, seeing the hay, and brain activity.

(Ree) Why isn't "the donkey moved because it wanted to" the end of the explanation for Rée?

Because Rée believes the donkey's desire also has causes, such as hunger, sensations, and brain activity.

(Ree) Rée thinks a person can resist a strong passion and still be causally determined. How is that possible on his view?

A person can resist strong feelings because their principles and willpower influence their actions. Those principles and that willpower also have causes.

(Ree) According to Rée, what is right and what is wrong about saying, "I can do what I want"?

It is right because our desires can cause our actions. It is wrong if we think our desires have no causes, because our desires are also caused by earlier thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

(Ree) If our actions and the willing behind them are effects of prior causes, can we still deserve praise or blame?

According to Rée's view, our actions are caused by earlier events, which raises questions about whether we deserve praise or blame for things we do not ultimately control.