What impact did the resurgence of nationalism play?

What was the Soviet Union divided into?

15 different republics
→ many contained semi-autonomous regions

When it collapsed what was the Soviet Union replaced by?

15 different independent states

Brezhnev
" I A E F... T T R T D O A S C... C O A S C "

"internal and external forces... try to reverse the development of a socialist country... concern of all socialist countries"

What did the threat of Soviet intervention play an important role in?

Polish government's response to 1980-81 popular protest = General Jarulzeski imposing martial law

What did the funeral of Chernenko provide Gorbachev?

- an opportunity to meet every leader of communist regimes of Eastern Europe
- each informed he would not intervene in their internal affairs = choose their own path of socialism

How had supporting satellite states become increasingly expensive?

- spent approx $40 billion annually propping up communist governments
- Gorbachev hoped many would follow his lead in economic reforms = rejuvenates socialism

Why did Gorbachev refuse to use force?

- believed use of armed intervention was mostly morally wrong
- instead of class struggle focus on universal values of human rights to promote interests of all peoples

What did the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine mean?

the people of Eastern Europe could choose their own governments

What did Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR lead to?

- attempts by some governments in Eastern Europe to reform
- increasing pressure for change

What was much pressure driven by?

nationalist sentiments → opportunity for each nation to decide its own future = gathered momentum

What did the ending of the Brezhnev doctrine pose a particular problem for?

- Eastern European leaders who wanted to resist reform
- could no longer rely on Soviet military intervention

When did evidence that Gorbachev meant what he said come?

- 1989 → Hungary adopted multi-party system and Polish elections returned a non-communist government = no action from USSR

What did the communist government in Poland yield to?

- pressure from the independent workers' organisation 1989
- Solidarity and other political groups then allowed to stand in elections

What was Solidarity able to do?

defeat the Communist Party by a landslide = Party collapsed and USSR did nothing

What happened in Hungary in 1988?

Janos Kadar, leader since 1956, sacked - government dominated by reformers and decides to allow other political parties to contest elections

What did Gorbachev's visit to East Berlin in 1989 do?

encouraged those who wished to push for reforms

What did Egon Krenz do?

- refused to sanction widespread repression
- opened access across Berlin Wall
- 9th November = dismantled by people power

What happened in Czechoslovakia in 1989?

- November = communist regime forced to make concessions (public demonstration)
- organisation Civic Forum emerged - co-ordinated campaign to rid of communist government
- public pressure = caved in = 1989 Vaclav Havel (communist opponent) elected President

What was Romania afflicted by?

discontented population (food shortages), lack of goods, repressive government, lack of democracy

What happened in Romania in 1989?

- support for regime collapsed
- leader (Nicolae Ceausescu) used army to open fire, but increased unpopularity
- December = even army unwilling to support = leader fled by helicopter to Bucharest
→ arrest and execution on Christmas day sealed end of communism in Romania

How was Pope John Paul II important?

- June 1974 visited Poland = said "Do not be afraid"
- encouraged those who sought change

Had the collapse of communism been peaceful?

yes except Romania and Yugoslavia = bloody civil war

By the end of 1989...

every pro-Soviet communist government in Eastern Europe had disintegrated

How did environmental concerns encourage growth of nationalism?

- focal point for rally = particular interest to those in outlying parts of Soviet Union
- soil erosion due to diversion of rivers in Central Asia
- industrial pollution in Baltic republics

How did the insecurity of local Party leaders encourage the growth of nationalism?

- Gorbachev's reforms threatened cosy lifestyle of conservatives with sizeable powerhouses
- tempting to lend support to local concerns = attempt to maintain position
- those seen as lackeys of Moscow = deeply unpopular

How did culture and language encourage the growth of nationalism?

- 1980s → Soviet Union = 145 million Russians, 141 million non-Russians
- range of Slavis and non-Slavic peoples = strong sense of own identity

What was Nagorno-Karabakh?

autonomous region within Azerbaijan republic, populated largely by Armenians

Explain the ethnic tensions that arose in Nagorno-Karabakh.

- tensions over desire of Amenians to join Armenian republic = 1988 violence
- unofficial referendum (without Soviet consent) returned large majority for joining Armenia
- November = Armenia announced Nagorno-Karabakh was under its control
- Soviet government imposed direct control from Moscow = inflamed

What clearly demonstrates the declining power of the central Soviet government?

- the Nagorno-Karabakh affair
- ethnic clashes → Georgia 1989, Kirgiztan 1990
- decline in authority = tensions in Moldovia
→ growth of nationalism amongst Moldovians alarmed those of Turkish descent
- tension between ethnic-Romanian population and ethnic Russians

What factors promoted a resurgence of feelings of national identity in the Baltic republics?

- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania had different history to other republics = independents pre-1939
→ many viewed Soviet Union as an occupying force
- higher levels of education = understanding of culture and history
- more economically-developed regions of the USSR

What happened between April and October 1988 in the Baltic republics?

- Popular Fronts establshed in Baltic republics
- intelligentsia took lead and formed Sajudis (movements), became mass organisations
- called for protection over native language and culture but quickly demanded independence
- over 75% Lithuanian population = ethnic Lithuanians

What happened in August 1989 in the Baltic republics?

- anniversary of Nazi-Soviet pact used to stage a mass demonstration (had resulted in Soviet annexation of the 3)
- human chain holding hands across the 3 republucs = show of independence

What happened in 1990 in the Baltic republics?

- the Popular Fronts won a majority in elections in all 3 Baltic republics
- March → Vyantas Landsbergis, speaker of Lithuanian Supreme Soviet, declared independence of Lithuania - other 2 republics followed soon after = illegal and challenge

What signalled the start of a descent into civil war and bloodshed?

- January 1991 pro-Soviet communists, supported by some Red Army troops, attempted to take over the TV station and in Vilnius
- at least 13 deaths → Gorbachev denied any orders = rogues in armed forces and KGB

What statement did Gorbachev issue?

made it clear calls for independence would not be prevented, so long as the correct constitutional channels were taken

How was there limited experience of independence?

- Ukraine = nationalist organisation 'Rukh' founded = little support in eastern half
- Belarussia and Central Asian republics = less experience of independence

How had the Soviet Union allowed a degree of autonomous control?

supported the language of national peoples in schools

What was an advantage for republics retaining the Union?

had been net-gainers of Soviet economic investment, especially Central Asian republics

What was often stronger than nationalist sentiment?

- loyalty to local and tribe groupings = wider national identity was superficial
- violence between different Muslim groups e.g Uzbeks and Kirgyz/Uzbeks and Turkmens

What was the nationalist resurgence complicated by?

60 million Russians lived not in Russia but in other republics

What did a referendum held in March 1991 indicate?

popular support for maintaining the Soviet Union in all republics outside Baltics and Georgia

What did Gorbachev's new Union Treaty of 1991 do?

contained enough concessions for preserving language and customs in each republic to keep support for a continued union alive

What made Yeltsin able to undermine Gorbachev's Union Treaty?

elected Chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet in March 1990

What was there little differentiation between?

Russia and Soviet institutions → had been fused

How was Russian nationalism different to that in Baltic republics?

largely confined to the intelligentsia

Why were Yeltsin and his fellow reformers happy to encourage Russian nationalism?

- method of undermining Soviet leader and Communist Party
- Yeltsin encouraged = "take what you can" to non-Russian republics

Why were Yeltsin and his fellow reformers happy to encourage Russian nationalism?

- method of undermining Soviet leader and Communist Party
- Yeltsin encouraged = "take what you can" to non-Russian republics

What did Yeltsin call for?

a much looser arrangement → a Commonwealth of Independent States made up of the former Soviet republics

What put an end to Gorbachev's Union Treaty?

the August Coup of 1991

How has research changed when interpreting the role of nationalism within the USSR?

- Western historians = developments in Moscow through study of nationalist movements
- some see collapse of Soviet Union as part of ending of the Cold War (favour immediately after 1991)
- events of Eastern Europe different to with USSR = recent research focusing on developments in individual republics → success of maintaining unity for so long