Human Development Exam 2

Cognitive Development

How we learn to think

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Constructivist theory in which children actively construct ideas of the world as little scientists, using assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrations of schemas.

Schema

Concept, ideas, ways of thinking about the world. Categories of knowledge

Assimilate

(Piaget) The process of fitting in a new experience in to existing categories/schemas

Accommodate

(Piaget) The process of modifying or changing the schema to allow for new information or experiences. Creating a new and more complex category

Equilibration

(Piaget) The process of using assimilation and accommodation to reach equilibrium, where our understandinf go the world matches our experiences with it

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage (0-2)

Preoperational stage (2-7)

Concrete operational stage (7-12)

Formal operational stage (12+)

Sensorimotor Stage

(Piaget) 0-2 years old

First schemas are actions, infants use senses and reflexes to learn about the world through trial and error

• Circular reactions (repeating interesting behaviors) develop from primary → tertiary

• Object permanence develops by 8-12 months old

• Delayed imitation: develops near the end of the stage, a sign of memory

• A-not-B error

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist outside of sensory awareness

• important because it shows the stand of holding things in mind with memory

Preoperational Stage

(Piaget) 2-7 years old

Advances:

• mental representation, symbolic thought — important for imaginary play (*use of open-ended toys)

Limitations:

• operations/reversible mental actions

• egocentrism

  • animism

• conservation

  • perception bound

  • centration

  • irreversibility

Animism

(Limit of the Preoperational Stage) The belief that inanimate objects are alive and have feelings and intentions

Centration

(Limit of the Preoperational Stage) The tendency to focus on one part of a stimulus or situation and exclude all others

• fail the appearance-reality task

Irreversibility

(Limit of the Preoperational Stage) Do not understand that reversing a process can undo it and restore the original state

Benefits of Imaginary Play

• practice representational schemas

• emotional processing

• social and language skills

• attention

• memory

• logical reasoning

• creativity

Concrete Operational Stage

(Piaget) 7-12 years old

Advances:

• less egocentric

• able to solve problems in mind if they have to do with the concrete world

• conservation

• classification

Limitations:

• children are literal in their understandings of things, cannot yet work through abstract or hypothetical thinking

Classification

(Concrete Operational Stage) Ability to understand hierarchies

Transitive Inference

(Concrete Operational) The ability to infer the relationship between two objects by understanding each object’s relationship to a third

• gained by around 5 years old

Seriation

(Concrete Operational) The ability to order objects in a series according to a physical dimension such as height, weight, or color

• by around 7 years old

Class Inclusion

Understanding hierarchical relationships among items

• by 5, some understanding but not complete

• achieved by around 8

Formal Operational Stage

(Piaget) 12+

• not everyone reaches, depends on education

Advances:

• ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically

• reasoning about ideas

• mutual perspective taking (10-12)

• societal perspective taking (12-15)

Limitations:

• adolescent egocentrism

  • imaginary audience

  • personal fable

Mutual Perspective Taking

10-12 years old. Aware that they take other’s perspectives and other try to take their own

Societal Perspective Taking

12-15 years old. Recognize that the social environment, including the larger society, influences people’s perspectives and beliefs

Imaginary Audience

(Adolescent egocentrism)

Feeling as if all eyes are on them. Error in perspective taking because adolescents misdirect their own preoccupation about themselves to other people and assume that others are focused on them

Personal Fable

(Adolescent egocentrism)

Believe that own emotions are different from and more intense than other people’s emotions

• no one else understands

• invincibility

Epistemic cognition

The ways in which individuals understand the nature of knowledge and how they arrive at ideas, beliefs, and conclusions

Post-Formal Reasoning

Abstract reasoning with practical considerations (early adulthood)

• multiple causes and solutions, all problems involve uncertainty

Dualistic thinking → relativistic thinking → reflective judgement

Dualistic Thinking

Knowledge is a collection of facts with right OR wrong, no in between

Relativistic Thinking

Most knowledge is relative, dependent on the situation and the thinker

• recognize that beliefs are subjective, that there are multiple perspectives and they are all defensible

Reflective Judgement

Knowledge is a synthesis of contradictory information and perspectives whose evidence can be evaluated according to certain criteria

Pragmatic Thought

The ability to accept inconsistencies and use reasoning to determine the best alternatives, to apply reflective judgment in real-world contexts

Cognitive Affective Complexity

The ability to be aware of, integrate, and regulate intense positive and negative emotions to make logical decisions about complicated everyday problems

• increases from early through late middle adulthood

• with gains adults better understand others’ perspectives, feelings, and motivations

Executive Functioning Skills

Self awareness, focus, set goals, planning, resist impulsive behaviors

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking. The ability to reflect on one’s thought process

• a part of post-formal cognitive development

What does post-formal cognitive development depend on

Experience and metacognition

• social interactions where individuals are exposed to situations and reading that challenges their knowledge and beliefs

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

We are embedded in a sociocultural context that shapes how we think and who we become

• emphasis on social interactions and culture as central to cognitive development

• children as little apprentices

Guided Participation

(Vygotsky) A form of sensitive teaching in which more knowledgeable others are attuned to the needs of children and help them accomplish more than the children could do alone

• use of scaffolding

Scaffolding

(Vygotsky) Assistance that permits ash child to bridge the gap between current competence level and the task at hand

• just enough help to feel that they’re doing it by self

• ex: showing how to do something, asking questions to guide to the answer

Zone of Proximal Development

(Vygotsky) Space between what I can do by myself and what I can’t do, taks the learner can complete with appropriate assistance

• where learning happens best

Cultural Tools

Parts of a child’s culture that influence how we think and learn

• physical items

• spoken language

• experiences

• psychological

Private Speech — Vygotsky

Taking aloud to self, with no intention of communicating with others

• accounts for 20-50% of 4-10 year old speech

• young children use to guide their own thinking

• plays a role in self-regulation

• use speech as self-scaffolding

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget:

• little scientists

• open ended toys

• hands on play, all senses, boredom

Vygotsky:

• little apprentices

• scaffolding

• talk and reach to children

• language development aids cognitive development

• language helps us learn to think

Fixed vs. Growth Mindset

Fixed mindset: Belief that skills and characteristics cannot be changed

Growth mindset: Belief that skills and characteristics are malleable or changeable and can. grow

Nicholas Carr — The Shallows

Internet is impacting our brain and cognition

• making us more superficial thinkers

• weakening of neural circuits involved in deep thinking, sustained attention, and deep analysis and learning

• reduced concentration with constant interruptions and chronic distractions are built in

• diminished memory/memory consolidation

Dauch et al. 2018 — Toys and Cognitive Development

Toddlers get either 4 or 16 toys, average toys in household is 70

• children given 4: focused longer, flow state, more creative play

• children given 16: moved between toys faster, more shallow/less engaged play

Language

A form of communication whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of abstract symbols with certain rules

5 Basic Components of Language

• Phonology/Phonemes

• Morphology/Morphemes

• Semantics

• Syntax

• Pragmatics

Phonology/Phonemes

Knowledge of sounds used in a given language; basic unit of sound

• sign language has with facial expressions and other body language cues

Morphology/Morphemes

Understanding the ways sounds can be combined to form words

Semantics

Meaning or context of words and sentences

Syntax

Rules (grammar) by which worlds are to be combined

Pragmatics

Understanding how to use language to communicate effectively

Infant Directed Speech

Shorter sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses, clear gestures, repetition

• improves language development

Learning Theory Approach to Language Development

• interaction with people aids children’s language development

  • serve and return

• the quantity of talk directed to children is linked to child’s vocab growth

• the way we talk to kids affects their language development

  • IDS

Labeling

A factor that can improve language development by labeling the world for children based on their focus

Recasting

A factor that can improve language development by correcting grammar with an example/explanation

Expanding

A factor that can improve language development by following up on child’s interest and making conversation