ISC 325 - Exam 1

What is theory-driven research?

Research guided by theory that provides a framework for interpreting findings and helps shape the research design, questions, and variables

-can connect specific findings to broader body of knowledge

Ex: A/B testing - How would theory help there?

What is applied research?

Systematic, practical investigation that addresses a specific or real-world question with a clear practical purpose

• This research is NOT guided by theory

• Goal=practical solutions, insights, innovations that can be directly applied to improve existing processes, practices, and conditions

What are research methods?

The means used to collect evidence needed to build and test explanations about what is being studied

• proprietary = conducted for a specific audience

• Scholarly = conducted to promote public access to knowledge

Purpose of research in ISC

Interested in consumer behavior

• what people do

• Why they do it

• What influences them to do it

• What effect it has on them and others

What is exploratory research?

Research used to gain new insights, generate hypotheses, and develop a deeper understanding of a phenomenon, especially when little is known about the topic

• What is this?

Ex: case studies, interviews, focus groups, etc

What is descriptive research?

Research that observes, documents, and analyzes characteristics of a group or phenomenon w/o manipulating variables

• who, what, when, and how much?

• Detailed account of the subject under investigation

• Typically before causal research

Ex: national census, market survey, cohort studies, content analysis

What is causal research?

Experimental research that investigates cause-and-effect relationships by examining the impact of one variable on another

• quantitative

• Typically use a control group

• Ability to be replicated

Ex: experiments (the variable is manipulated), A/B testing (ads + social posts), longitudinal intervention studies

What is RACE?

R - research

A - action

C - communication

E - evaluation

• common framework in ISC to use

Evaluation of Campaigns

• post-campaign data collection (define evaluation criteria)

• Compare results to predefined objectives

• Analyze effectiveness of tactics

• Assess ROI

• Identify lessons learned

• Make recommendations for the future

What are the seven campaign planning steps?

1.) define the current situation and potential benefits

2.) analyze and segment the audience

3.) establish goals and objectives

4.) select communication channels

5.) design your campaign message

6.) implement the campaign

7.) evaluate the campaign

Ethical Considerations: What is informed consent?

Participants should be fully informed about the research’s purpose, what it involves, and how their data will be used. They must voluntarily agree and be able to withdraw w/o penalty

• US doesn’t have a comprehensive federal data privacy law but some states have enacted their own privacy laws (KY signed in 2024)

• Canada: Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA)

• UK and Europe: General Data Protection (GDPR)

What are three major ethical considerations in research?

• informed consent

• Confidentiality

• Responsible use of data

What is the main difference between exploratory, descriptive, and causal research?

Exploratory = discover/explore

Descriptive = describe

Causal = determine cause and effect

Audience Insights

A deep understanding of an audience’s behaviors, motivations, needs, preferences, and influences behind brand choice

• derived from audience/consumer research

• Allows ISC professionals to create tailored message and communication strategies - ISC is planned and implemented to promote brands

Key components of Audience Insights

• demographic

• Psychographic

• Behavioral

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A model used to understand what motivates people based on different levels of human needs

Why is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs relevant to ISC?

• identifying motivations

• Crafting relevant messages

• Segmentation and personalization

• Understanding behavioral drivers

• Designing emotional appeals

MODE Model

Motivation

Opportunity

as Determinants of the Attitude-Behavior relation

What is Attitude? ⭐️

A learned, global evaluation of an object (person, place, issue) that influences thought and action

• is NOT a behavior, is a predisposition, state of readiness that guides behavior in predictable (not always rational) ways

Attitude as a Stored Association

Is a stored association between and an evaluation of that object, which can be positive or negative

• these associations can influence behavior through:

-spontaneous (automatic) processing

- deliberative processing

• we engage in this processing based on motivation and opportunity

What is motivation? ⭐️

An individual’s willingness to engage with information.

• high motivation arises when the outcome is personally significant or relevant

What is opportunity? ⭐️

Individual ability to process information, which depends on factors like time, cognitive resources, or access to information

• high when ability and resources to process information

Spontaneous Processing ⭐️⭐️

AUTOMATIC activation of existing attitudes without much effort to evaluate new information

• happens with low motivation and/or low opportunity

How do attitudes influence behavior?

Attitudes can influence behavior through spontaneous or deliberative processing, depending on motivation and opportunity

Deliberative Processing ⭐️⭐️

Carefully considering attitudes and available information before acting, Individuals engage in more deliberate thought

• High motivation and high opportunity

Motivation + Opportunity = Processing Mode⭐️⭐️

• low motivation and/or low opportunity = spontaneous processing

• High motivation and high opportunity = deliberative processing

What are the two modes of processing?

• Spontaneous processing

• Deliberative

What two factors shape our information processing?

• motivation

• Opportunity

Characteristics of attitude

Attitudes are learned - we are not born w/

complex - large summary evaluations that are complex, based in both cognitive and affective states

and influential (thought & action) - help us categorize the world and steer us in a direction of behavior

• Biological basis - but sometimes we have inherent traits that can help shape them (extremism)

Cognitive Attitude

Primarily based on cognition (thoughts)

• the “head”

Affective Attitude

Primarily based on affect (emotions)

• the “heart”

Expectancy- Value Model ⭐️⭐️

A model that explains the multifaceted nature of attitudes (Fishbein 1963 + 1967)

• beliefs (expectancies) and evaluations (values)

• Attitude = belief X evaluation

Expectancy (Belief)⭐️

A conviction or ideals that people hold to be true about the world, themselves, others

• shaped by experiences, culture, education, social influence (can be both factual and subjective) - not always true

Ex: organ donation saves lives

Value (Evaluation)⭐️

Enduring ideals or overarching goals people strive to obtain

• shaped by experiences, culture, education, social influence - more stable than beliefs

Ex: helping others is my form of self-actualization

Belief vs. Value

Belief = what you think is true

• drinking an energy drink will give me jitters

• Drinking an energy drink will help me stay awake while studying

Value = how important/desirable something is based on your ideals or goals

• feeling jittery while studying is going to make me unproductive (negative attitude)

• Staying awake to study is what I need right now. It will help me do well on the exam (positive attitude)

Attitude - Behavior Gap ⭐️

The difference between what someone thinks/feels about something and what they actually do

• a positive attitude does not always result in corresponding behavior

Attitude-Behavior Consistency

The extent to which a person’s behavior matches their attitude.

• inconsistency can occur because of dissonance or situational/social constraints

3 Factors Influencing Attitude - Behavior Gap

1.) Situation - context exert a powerful impact on behavior

2.) Individual Traits - individuals differ to the extent to which they display consistency between attitude and behavior

3.) Qualities of the attitude - general + specific

Norm

An individual’s beliefs about the appropriate behavior in a situation

Social Norm

An unwritten rule shared by members of a group or society that describes or prescribes a particular behavior

Self - monitoring (individual trait)

The degree to which individuals are concerned w/ displaying appropriate behavior in social situations

High self-monitors

Concerned w/ displaying appropriate behavior socially

• can adapt an attitude to fit a situation so as not to displease others

Ex: Eating at a restaurant - “Yeah, it’s pretty good”

• adjust behavior to fit the social situation

Low self-monitors

Concerned with inner feelings and attitudes

• more likely to translate their attitude into behavior

Ex: Eating at a restraint “I don’t really like it. It’s too salty for me.”

General Attitude

The global evaluation that cuts across different situations

• will not predict each and every behavior

• Can predict broad classes of behavior that cut across different situations

Ex: exercise is good for me

Specific Attitude

The evaluation of a single act, or specific behavior that takes place in a particular context at a particular time

• can predict highly specific behaviors

Ex: going to the gym tomorrow at 7am would be good for me

Theory of Planned Behavior

A theory explaining behavior through

• attitude toward the behavior

• Subjective norms: the support of those we value

• Perceived behavioral control: the extent to which we believe we can actually perform the behavior

These factors predict our behavioral intention, which in turn predicts our actual behavior

Attitude toward behavior

A person’s overall evaluation of performing the behavior Subjective norms

• positive attitudes increase intentions to perform the behavior

Ex: “Buying Patagonia reflects my values” “Vaccination protects me and others”

Subjective norms

Perceived social pressure from important others

• social expectations strengthen behavioral intentions

Ex: “My friends also wear Patagonia” “People important to me believe I should get vaccinated”

Perceived Behavioral Control

The extent to which individuals believe they have the resources and ability to perform the behavior These factors

• greater perceived control increases both intention and actual behavior

Ex: “I can afford this Patagonia brand” “It is easy for me to get vaccinated”

Behavioral Intentions

The intention or plan to perform a behavior

Ex: “I intend to buy Patagonia in the next month” “I intend to get vaccinated soon”

Behaviors:

“Buying Patagonia”

“Receiving a flu vaccine”

Functional Perspective ⭐️

A persuasive message is most likely to change an individual’s attitude when the message is directed at the underlying function the attitude serves

• functions: needs, motives, benefits to the target audience

• This perspective addresses “Why do people hold the attitudes they do?”

Main function of attitudes

Knowledge: help people make sense of the world

-help us organize and simplify information

Utilitarian: rewards and punishments

Social Adjustive: the desire to be accepted by others so we agree to adopt an attitude

Social identity: we have attitudes that help us communicate who we are and what we hope to become

Value-expressive: express core values and beliefs; self concept

Ego-defensive: protecting self from uncomfortable emotions, inner conflicts

Balance Theory

We strive for consistency in our beliefs and attitudes, seeking a “balance” between our beliefs, feelings, and social interactions

The P-O-X Triangle Model

P: Person

O: Other Person

X: A third thing, person, or topic

• odd number of disliking (-) = unbalanced

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957)

State of mental discomfort that arises from holding two different beliefs or values

• feeling like we need to be on one side

Ex: care about health but also a smoker

Cigarette Smoking Application (Cognitive Dissonance)

• believe that good health is important

• BUT also believe that smoking is bad for your health

Minimize mental discomfort by reasoning with yourself…

“Smoking is better than other habits, like eating junk food”

“Quitting will lead to even worse habits”