unit 2 India

Geography

consists of what we know today as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, multiple and diverse cultures and diverse geography. The region includes mountains, vast plains, jungles, and two major river systems, the Indus and the Ganges.

HARAPPANS:

Located in the Indus River Valley, first known Indian civilization, existed contemporary to the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia under Sargon, Archaeological evidence suggests there was trade between the Harappans and the Akkadians.

Similarities between mesopotamia and ancient India

The location near the tributaries of the Indus River are similar in effect to the location of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates. Harappan cities featured streets in grid patterns, suggesting an early form of city planning. Harappans had their own writing, but like the Minoan Linear A, we are unable to read it today. There are very few examples of Harappan text known to survive to modern times. The Harappan civilization disappeared in the late Bronze Age. The exact reason why is unclear perhaps because of overuse of resources, irregular flooding of the Indus River, or the appearance of foreign invaders.

DRAVIDIANS:

The Dravidians were another Indian civilization during this period; they were eventually conquered by foreign invaders known as the Aryans.

ARYANS:

Indo-European tribes who found their way to India and established themselves as a dominant power. By the end of the Bronze Age, they governed most of India. However, India was not governed as a single unified state at this time, there were many different polities

SANSKRIT:

Earliest Indo-European written language in India of which a large body of literature exists. this writing is often found in religious writings such as Vedas.

VEDAS:

Written compositions of a religious nature, usually hymns or chants, but also containing information about the Aryan society.

Rigveda

the most famous of the Vedas, contained stories of the world’s origins and is still used today in some Hindu prayers.

CASTE SYSTEM:

Brahmans = clergy or priest caste.

Kshatriyas = warriors or warrior elite, the most powerful caste.

Vaishayas = commoners or farmers, merchants, and artisans.

Shudras = non-Aryans, considered beneath commoners because they were not Aryan.

Each caste is subdivided into hundreds of other smaller castes (jatis), usually grouped by family or occupation. The caste system allowed very little possibility of moving from one caste to another.

HINDUISM:

Aryans introduced a long-lasting form of religion to India known as this. The religions has some European roots, thus is polytheistic and the gods bear some similarity to Greek and Roman gods. There are also different branches of this religion based on preference for the gods Vishnu or Shiva.

Vishnu

the solar deity, acquired a reputation as a benign patron god who protects humans (thereby making them among the most important Hindu gods). they are believed to occasionally take human form.

Shiva

the god of destruction and rebirth, always represented as dancing. Shiva is believed to occasionally take human form.

Kali

the mother goddess, but also the goddess of death. She represents the embodiment of ancient Indian attitudes toward women, representing both good and evil.

HINDUISM BASIC BELIEFS:

The universe was created by a being called Brahma.

Samsara:

Reincarnation. Being reborn over and over until you reach moksha liberation from this cycle.

Atman:

eternal self or soul in some aspects.

dharma:

duty, virtue, morality. Basically put it’s what you should do in life. Everyone’s dharma is different according to your social standing, occupation, and gender.

karma:

Sanskrit word meaning action. Every action has an equal reaction, good or bad, in the future. Functions in harmony with dharma.

Mahavira

born to the elite, but abandoned the comforts of that life

on the grounds they got in the way of his soul attaining the self-consciousness needed to

achieve unity with the universal divine force (thus, eliminating reincarnation). Mahavira

avoided clothes, foods based on life forms, and violence, all of which he believed brought

bad karma. Mahavira ultimately died of starvation. His philosophy is known as Jainism.

Jainism

a derivative of Hinduism that started as a philosophical school of thought and associated with the philosopher Mahavira. Jainism centers on achieving a self- consciousness that frees the soul from perpetual reincarnation. One way to do this is to avoid all of the comforts of life. Few elite members of society joined, most converts came from lower classes (although few went to the extremes of Mahavira himself). Jainism still exists today. Jainists do not believe in a creator god, but they do believe in reincarnation. The goal of Jainists is to break the cycle of reincarnation as quickly as possible and attaining nirvana.

ahimsa:

Basic core belief of Jainism. The idea of non-violence.

Siddhartha, the Buddha

grew up in comfort and privilege, sheltered from the world’s evils by his father. When Siddhartha the Buddha sneaks away into the city, he witnesses death, sickness, and suffering for the first time. Determined to avoid these predicaments, he trains in asceticism (the denial of worldly pleasures for self) before having an awakening that changes his beliefs. Buddhism – named after founder, Siddhartha the Buddha. Buddha means “the awakened one.” Buddhism emphasizes that both the extremes of hedonism (the idea that pleasure is the only intrinsic good) and asceticism are wrong. Buddha emphasizes a moderate path, avoiding extreme indulgence and extreme discomfort. Buddhism still exists today, however, less then 1 % of India’s population is Buddhist.

Dharma

the teachings of Buddha collected into a body of religious law. Later followers of Buddha continually add to the laws. Among the central themes are that the cause of all suffering is desire, and the importance of achieving nirvana.

Nirvana

a state of blissful idleness achieved by following the Dharma, contemplation, and meditation. Nirvana is achievable on earth, a state of mind. Nirvana can be achieved by following the 4 Noble Truths. While technically nirvana can be achieved by anyone at any time, it can only be realistically achieved by monastics. Another important aspect of Buddhism is the eightfold path, although referred to as steps on a path, is not meant as a sequential learning process, but as eight aspects of life, all of which are to be integrated in every day life. Thus the environment is created to move closer to the Buddhist path. Hindus believe in reincarnation. They believe that you must pass through the cycles of reincarnation before you achieve moksha.

Reincarnation vs rebirth?

Buddhists believe in rebirth. You can be reborn in different forms according to your karma. However, you can avoid countless cycles of rebirth by achieving nirvana. MOKSHA AND NIRVANA ARE DIFFERENT!! Very complicated concepts.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT:

After Alexander the Great conquered a small portion of India, he allowed local Indian leaders to rule on his behalf. Indian kings who ruled on behalf of Alexander begin to conquer other Indian kingdoms, creating the first Indian empires. The best known of these is the Mauryan Dynasty under the leader Chandragupta, which actually originated with Chandragupta’s defeat of Alexander’s successors.

CHANDRAGUPTA I(Maurya):

Chandragupta = overthrew the leaders who ruled for Alexander (and his successors), founding the first major Indian empire. Although it seems incompatible with Chandragupta’s status as an elite, he was a patron of Jainism. Abdicated throne to become a monk and starved to death. While his Mauryan Dynasty was relatively short-lived, it ranks as the first of the successful Indian Dynasties and still widely recognized as an important development in Indian history today.

KAUTILYA:

Kautilya = an adviser under Chandragupta, Kautilya wrote a text, Arthashastra, offering ruling advice to his king. Kautilya’s advice goes against the basic precepts of Indian culture, telling his leader to do what is expedient (Destroy weaker kingdoms, make peace with stronger kingdoms until in position to destroy also). The genre of literature written as advice to kings is known as “Mirrors for Princes.”

Arthashastra,

an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy

eightfold path,

a core teaching in Buddhism that serves as the practical guide to ending suffering (dukkha) and achieving liberation, or nirvana

moksha

freedom/release

ASHOKA:

a grandson of Chandragupta. His reign shows signs of hegemonic,

not centralized, rule. Ashoka spread propaganda of his own greatness by erecting pillars

and issuing edicts that favorably described himself as a monarch. After receiving a

wound in battle, Ashoka converts to Buddhism and spread Buddhism to his subjects.

The edicts of Ashoka, written in the Prakrit language, claim Ashoka as a paternalistic

ruler taking care of his subjects and making them prosperous as opposed to the tactic of

scaring subjects into submission. These Rock Edicts contain Buddhist thoughts and

prayers. Ashoka left such edicts on pillars throughout his kingdom. 19 still exist today.

Ashoka supports Buddhist missionary activities, spreading Buddhism throughout India,

Sri Lanka, and other places. The picture shows a Buddhist shrine (stupa), evidence of the

spread of Buddhism.

Ashoka’s reign lasts 40 years. Without a clear successor, a period of civil war erupts after

his death, ending the Mauryan Dynasty.

KUSHAN DYNASTY:

Under the rule of the Kushans, northwest India and adjoining

regions participated both in seagoing trade and in commerce along the Silk Road to

China. The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term Guishang, used in historical

writings to describe one branch of the Yuezhi—a loose confederation of Indo-European

people who had been living in northwestern China until they were driven west by another

group, the Xiongnu, in 176–160 B.C. The Yuezhi reached Bactria (northwest Afghanistan

and Tajikistan) around 135 B.C. Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scytho-

Parthians, the Yuezhi moved south into the northwest Indian region traditionally known

as Gandhara (now parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan) and established a capital near

Kabul. They had learned to use a form of the Greek alphabet, and were the first Indian

rulers to strike gold coins in imitation of the Roman aureus exchanged along the caravan

routes.

The Kushans are another ruling empire illustrating how such empires embodied both

continuity and change. Like previous empires, they do not conquer all of India. Their

coins show additional transitions, using an alphabet related to the Greek alphabet

(continuity), but adapted for Indian languages (change).

Kanishka I

a Kushan king who fully adopted Indian culture,

including adopting Buddhism. Under Kanishka, Buddhism again flourishes and

Buddhism missionaries spread the religion. The version of Buddhism spread by

Kanishka is known as Mahayana Buddhism, which is the modern form of Buddhism.

GUPTA DYNASTY:

The Gupta Dynasty does not conquer as much territory as some

previous Indian empires, but has a longer reign. Indian leaders rule the Gupta Dynasty,

not Indo-Greeks. The Guptas show favoritism to traditional Hinduism, but also support

other religions. They are important in creating a classical style of art, architecture, and

literature within Indian culture.

The Gupta Empire flourished, in military and territorial conquests as well as cultural and

scholastic advancements, during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta II. Yet the

succeeding rulers, beginning with Kumaragupta I and then Skandagupta, oversaw the

eventual end of the Gupta Empire through military defeats, devalued money and

withering leadership.

The Huna were a Central Asian tribe that consisted of four hordes, of which the White

Huns invaded the Gupta Empire during the reign of Kumaragupta. They caused great

damage to the failing Gupta Empire. The White Huns broke through the Gupta military

defenses in the northwest in the 480s, during the reign of Budhagupta, and by 500 CE

much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Huna.

After the breakup of the Gupta Dynasty, individual local kingdoms reemerge. One

consequence of the addition of more kingdoms is the addition of more local royal courts.

Each individual local royal court sponsors the patronage of artists, leading to an increase

in the amount of cultural activities, temples, palaces, art, literature, etc.

Vedas

Religious chants and stories. Developed with creation of Sanskrit between 1500

& 500 BC.

Mahabharata=

describes war between cousins for control of empire. Hero is Arjuna and

main character is Vasudeva who is the supreme god Vishnu.

Ramayana=

Account of fictional ruler of rama

Both include religious and moral lessons. One should only be aware of moral rightness of

act itself.

Mahabharata

The epic story of this culture, similar in importance to what the Odyssey

and Illiad meant to ancient Greeks. The story is of a major battle between two different

coalitions of kings, who are cousins. An important chapter is called the BHAGAVAD

GITA. One king, Arjuna pauses to question whether war and violence against his

opponents (some of whom are cousins) is appropriate. His charioteer (actually the god

Vishnu in disguise) tells the king that considering these things are a credit to the king, but

reminds the king that it is his duty to fight. The story reinforces the sense of duty inherent

in this society. The people of India believe that that Mahabharata contains the answers to

all of life’s questions. In other words in any situation you may encounter during your life,

there is a similar story in the Mahabharata that can serve to guide you and provide advice. act of moral rightness and your dharma, understand how important this is, the idea that this story contains advice to any situation in life. oaths

baghavad gita

most important chapter in the mahabarata

kalidasa,

major poet of the Gupta period - wrote the cloud mesenger

Ramayana

= a story about the god Rama recovering his kidnapped wife from her

abductors. Rama’s wife is willing undergo purification by fire to prove her fidelity, but

she is saved by divine intervention. The purpose of the story is to show the devotion of

wives to their husbands and similar social conventions. The story also provides a cultural

touchstone or common experience between different Indian civilizations.

Upanishads

Written by priests to organize religious ideas. Upanishads are less about

the gods themselves than about religious philosophy such as the soul as part of a

universal energy

brahma

universe was created by a being called brahmah.