Outstanding Leadership Approaches (9/30/2026)

Why are these leadership approaches considered “outstanding?”

These leaders go beyond what was originally expected of them, such as through multi-arousal, self-sacrificial, inspiring behaviors (so we can consider this a more personal type of leadership)

Where transformational-transactional leadership theory places more emphasis

• Values

• Emotions

• Importance of symbolic behavior

Transformational-transactional theory is linked because?

One cannot talk about transformational leaders without acknowledging transactional leaders

Theory of transformational leadership → the full range of leadership theory

Incorporates new transformational leadership theory plus other theories such as behavioral leadership

Is transformational-transactional theory considered as opposite ends of a single continuum or bipolar constructs?

They were originally considered opposite ends on the same continuum but later said to be bipolar constructs; a transformational leader is also transactional

Transformational-transactional theory is popularly measured with the multi-factor leadership questionnaire

9 dimensions. Popular questionnaire bc modern organizations want transformational leaders who have the full range of leadership

Emotional intelligence and leadership

Emotions are important at each stage of the leader-member relationship

What correlation did Harms & Crede, 2010 find between leader emotional intelligence and transformational leadership

.05 - .6

Why do some scholars argue that emotional intelligence as an “intelligence” is a marketing gimmick and NOT a core, higher-order psychological factor that drives all emotional experiences

Not a construct or higher order psychological factor as we understand it in science because it fails on multiple levels when tested.

The measurement of emotional intelligence

• Self-reports

• Typically undergraduate samples rather than working adults

Problems with meta-analytic studies and emotional intelligence

No proof of encoding, more so measuring emotional efficacy rather than intelligence.

Problems with incremental validity tests related to emotional intelligence

Does not prove above and beyond personality

Transformational leadership

Process of influencing major changes in attitudes and assumptions and transforming people. Very personal nature of leadership - personal needs, personal goals, personal development

Transformational leaders have the ability to do what?

Lead changes in an organization’s vision, strategy, and culture as well as on followers. Focus on intangible qualities in order to build relationships and inspire people to participate in change process.

Transformational leaders offer:

A purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on higher-order intrinsic needs. They treat followers as full human beings

Transactional leadership

Basis of this leadership style is a transaction or exchange process between leaders and followers. Good at traditional management functions

Transactional leaders focus on:

The present and excel at keeping the organization running smoothly and efficiently. Maintains stability rather than promote change

Augmentation effect

Transformational leadership adds to the effect of transactional leadership by adding to the expected outcomes so that employees perform beyond expectations

TL effectiveness

Contingent rewards shows similar trends with transformational leadership because it’s a sign of customized needs being met for the employee from the leader

Detriments of transformational leadership to the leaders themselves

• Increases in leader emotional exhaustion

  • Self sacrifices, having to understand each follower

• Increases subsequent leader turnover intentions

Detriments of transformational leadership to subordinates

• Stress

• Burnout

• An expectation to always perform at your best and change

Detriments of transformational leadership to the organization

Excessive competition among subunits which can result in a decline in org effectiveness

Different conceptualizations of charisma

• A special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers

• A fire that ignites followers’ energy and commitment, producing results above and beyond the call of duty

• Follower attributions of extraordinary qualities to the leader (charisma is transitory)

Charismatic leadership

Values-based, symbolic, and emotion-laden leader signaling. However, there is little clarity and consistency in the definition

Charismatic leaders

• Have an emotional impact on people

• Their passion for a mission inspires people to follow them

Distinguishing characteristics of charismatics

• Are likable (people admire, respect, and identify with the leader and want to be liked by him or her)

• Their source of influence comes from personal characteristics rather than a formal position of authority

• They articulate an idealized vision of a better future in a compelling way

• They use unconventional means to transcend the status quo and create change

Can charismatic leadership be learned?

Yes. While charisma itself is an internal personality characteristic, aspects of charismatic leadership can be learned and used

Unintended outcomes of charismatics

• A number of issues resulting from being in adoration/awe of a leader (awestruck effect: when followers are hesitant to go against leader)

• Excessive stress, psychological disorders, and reduced engagement for employees

• May result in elitism, isolation, and lack of necessary cooperation with other subunits (leader creates enemies easily)

• Post-departure crisis

The right leadership situation for charismatic leadership

• Context characteristics such as crisis situations (fear of economic loss, physical danger, or threats to core values)

• Attributional ambiguity

• Follower characteristics (when followers are insecure, their basic needs aren’t met, etc.)

• Opportunities to interact with leader

Differences between charismatic leadership and transformational leadership

Main difference is in their effect: TLs empower their subordinates to take active roles as leaders in organizational change while CLs inspire unquestioning trust and obedience in followers who tend to idolize the leader

Summary of TL and CL

• The best leaders are both transformational and transactional

• Charismatic leadership is rare and risky, but success is possible

• Spinoffs of the “new leadership” (i.e., ethical, servant etc.)

Ethics

Concentrates on the nature of right and wrong (good and evil). Defined in terms of behaviors, values, and motives

Ethical leader

Must intend no harm and respect the rights of all affected parties. High on integrity. Does not engage in abusive supervision

Ethical decisions are judged based on:

Ends, means, and outcomes

Ethical dilemmas

Resulting from competing objectives of different stakeholders. Leaders have to content with the “dirty hands problem.” Ethical leaders must combat the tendency to be comfortable with moral compromises

Bathsheba synsdrome

The moral failure of successful leaders

Approaches to assess consequences

Ethical egoism (greatest good for oneself), utilitarianism (greatest good for greatest number of people), and altruism (to promote the best interest of others

Predictors of ethical leadership

• Cognitive moral development (Kohlberg’s theory)

• Moral self-identity (maturity and conation)

• Personality traits

• Situational factors (e.g., moral intensity of the issue; follower traits and beliefs)