Learn: ETS Major Field Exam - Psychology

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association that states, if you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an unconditioned response (UR) that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response. Was discovered by Pavlov and then Watson proposed that it was able to explain all aspects of human psychology

Ex: Pavlov's Dogs, Little Albert

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning attributed to B.F. Skinner, where the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated, behavior which is reinforced will likely be repeated, and behavior which is punished will occur less frequently

Thorndike's Law Of Effect

Principle that Skinner based operant conditioning off of, according to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated

Skinner Box

Also known as an operant conditioning chamber, a device used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame, in which, an animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors

What are the three types of responses that can follow behavior identified by Skinner?

Neutral Operants, Reinforcers, Punishers

Neutral Operants

Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated

Reinforcers

Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated, can be either positive of negative

Punishers

Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, punishment weakens behavior

Positive Reinforcement

A response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior, with the reward being a reinforcing stimulus. Strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding

Negative Reinforcement

The termination of an unpleasant state following a response, it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is 'rewarding' to the animal or person. Strengthens the behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience

Escape Learning

A result of negative reinforcement, when a response is learned that would put an end to the aversive stimulus in question

Avoidance Learning

A result of negative reinforcement, the process of learning to employ avoidance behaviors in certain circumstances

Punishment

An aversive event designed to weaken the behavior it follows, can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus

What are the problems with using punishment?

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is way to cope with problems. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors. Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do

Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, response rate is slow, extinction rate is fast

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times, response rate is fast, extinction rate is medium

Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made, response rate is medium, extinction rate is medium

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times, response rate is fast, extinction rate is slow (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, response rate is fast, extinction rate is slow

Knowledge Acquisition

The process of absorbing and storing new information in memory, the success of which is often gauged by how well the information can later be remembered, depends heavily on the representation and organization of the information and the utility of knowledge can also be influenced by how the information is structured

Social Learning Theory

A theory proposed by Bandura that emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Considers how both the environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. Agrees with classical conditioning and operant conditioning but adds two important ideas: 1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses, 2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning

Observational Learning

Learning by observing people around behaving in various ways. Individuals that are observed are called models. Children pay attention to some models and encode their behavior, at a later time the may imitate the behavior they have observed.

Ex: Bobo doll experiment

Biological Constraints On Learning

Any limitations on an organism's capacity to learn that are caused by the inherited sensory, response, or cognitive capabilities of members of a given species, result from biological factors rather than from experience

Levels Of Processing

A model by Craik and Lockhart focusing on the depth of processing involved in memory, that predicted the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last, with the basic idea that memory is what happens as result of processing information, but with no clear distinction between short-term and long-term memory and instead focusing on the processes involved in memory

Depth Of Processing

The meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it, memory is just a by-product of the depth of processing information

Shallow Processing

Takes the forms of structural processing and phonemic processing, involves maintenance rehersal and leads to fairly short-term retention of information

Structural Processing

A form of shallow processing based on appearance and occurring when we encode only the physical qualities of something

E.g. how the letters look

Phonemic Processing

A form of shallow processing occurring when we encode an item's sound

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition to help us hold information in the short-term memory, occurs without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information

Deep Processing

Takes the form of semantic processing, and involves elaboration rehearsal leading to better recall

Semantic Processing

A form of deep processing occurring when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning

Elaboration Rehearsal

A more meaningful analysis of information, practice that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered

What are the strengths of the levels of processing model?

Was an improvement on Atkinson & Shiffrin's account of transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory, changed the direction of memory research and showed that encoding was not a simple, straightforward process, led to other experiments showing similar results

What are the weaknesses of the levels of processing model?

It does not explain how the deeper processing results in better memories, deeper processing takes more effort than shallow processing and it could be this, rather than the depth of processing that makes it more likely people will remember something, the concept of depth is vague and cannot be observed, therefore, it cannot be objectively measured

Cognitive Representation

A hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality, or else a mental process that makes use of such a symbol, the mental imagery of things that are not currently seen or sensed by the sense organs, one of the ways to explain and describe the nature of ideas and concepts. Enable representing things that have never been experienced and things that don't exist

Information Processing Theory

Based on a number of assumptions: 1. Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems, 2. These processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, 3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, 4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers. Conceptualizes attention by thinking of humans as information processors who can only process a limited amount of information at a time without becoming overloaded, pioneered by Broadbent. Model of the brain as a limited capacity information processing system, through which external input is transmitted. Models consist of a series of stages which represent stages of processing, assume serial processing of stimulus inputs. Analogy between human cognition and computer functioning is limited. Evidence for theories/models of attention under information processing largely based on experiments under controlled, scientific conditions, and therefore may not be applicable to the real world outside of the laboratory. Both bottom-up processing and top-down processing are important.

Input Processes

In information processing, processes concerned with the analysis of the stimuli

Storage Processes

In information processing, processing covering everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding an manipulation of the stimuli

Output Processes

In information processing, processes responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus

Serial Processing

One process has to be completed before the next starts

Parallel Processing

Assumes some or all processes involved in a cognitive task occur at the same time. More frequent when someone is highly skilled

Problem Solving

In cognitive psychology, refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze and solve problems

What are the steps in the problem process?

The discovery of the problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the problem, researching the available options, and taking actions to achieve your goals

What are the problem solving strategies?

Algorithms, Heuristics, Trial and Error, Insight

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that will always produce the correct solution. Can be time-consuming so it's not always the best approach

Ex: Mathematical formula

Heuristic

A mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Do not always guarantee a correct solution but allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set

Trial And Error

Approach to problem solving that involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. Can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available but is not good when there are many different choices

Insight

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

This is the point that I gave up, but I want to say that I did do pretty good on the exam and if you're studying for it just look at this quizlet and maybe one other that you find, or look up an intro book and read the chapter summaries

Learning

Classical Conditioning

Acquisition

-In the initial period of learning, acquisition describes when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

-In psychology, extinction refers to gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli

Spontaneous Recovery

-A phenomenon of pavlovian conditioning that refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time following extinction

Generalisation

-The tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

-In classical conditioning, discrimination is a process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one

Systematic Desensitisation

-A type of exposure therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning developed by Wolpe. This therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually suing counter-conditioning

-GO BACK TO PAGE

Strengths of Classical Conditioning

Criticisms of Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

The Response Rate

The Extinction Rate

Behavior Modification

Token Economy

Behavior Shaping

Educational Applications

Language Acquisition

Knowledge Acquisition

Knowlege Representation

Knowledge Organization

Semantic Networks

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning

Biological Constraint

Learning Theories and Issues

Memory

Levels of Processing

Multi-Store Model

Types of Memory Phenomena

Encoding Strategies and Failures

Retrieval Strategies and Failures

Semantic Organization

Memory Theories and Issues

Cognition

Information Processing

Broadbent's Filter Model

Treisman's Attenuation Model

Deutsch and Deutsch Late Selection Model

Top-Down Processing

Bottom-Up Processing

Problem Solving -Go into cognitive textbook

Selective Attention

Cocktail Party Effect

Attentional Capacity

Validity

Reliability

Extrapolation

Followers of the behaviorist approach (watson, skinner)

Psychology

-Behavior

-Includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and movement

-Mental Processes

-Refers to all the internal, covert activity of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, and remembering

-The activities of our brain when it is engaged in thinking, observing the environment, and using language

The Scientific Method

A step-by-step process used by researchers and scientists to determine if there is a relationship between two or more variables. Psychologists use this method to conduct psychological research, gather data, process information, and describe behavior.

What are the five steps of the scientific method?

Careful observation, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, experimental testing, and refining hypotheses based on experimental findings

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated (the cause)

Dependent Variable

The variable that is being measured (the effect)

Hypothesis

An attempt to answer a research question based on prior observation and background research

Psychological Approaches

The five major approaches/perspectives are biological, psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and humanistic

Biological Approach

The study of the biology of behavior, it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics, examining the relationship between the mind and body, neural mechanisms, and the influence of heredity on behavior

Believes behavior to be a consequence of our genetics and physiology

Is the only approach that examines thought, feelings, and behaviors from the physical point of view, and assumes all thoughts, feeling and behavior has a biological cause

How is the biological approach relevant to psychology?

Comparative method allows different species to be studied and compared, physiology examines how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, and how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior, and the investigation of inheritance examines what an animal inherits from its parents and the mechanisms behind inheritance

What are the basic assumptions of the biological approach?

Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Behavior can be largely explained in terms of biology (e.g., genes/hormones). Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behavior to the environment, therefore, most behavior will have an adaptive/evolutionary purpose.

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

What are the limitations of the biological approach?

Other information on biological approach

Other information on biological approach

Other information on biological approach

Psychodynamic Approach

Developed on the basis of clinically derived theories proposed by SIgmund Freud, followed the idea that our unconscious mind comprises mind comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but that influence judgments, feelings, or behavior.

What are the basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives. Our behavior and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood (during psychosexual development). All behavior has a cause (usually unconscious), even slops of the tongue. Therefore all behavior is determined. Personality is made up of three parts: the id, ego, and super-ego. Different parts of the unconscious mind are in constant struggle.

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?

Other information about the psychodynamic approach

Other information about the psychodynamic approach

Other information about the psychodynamic approach

Who are the key followers of the psychodynamic approach?

Freudian Slips

The transfer of unconscious thoughts and feeling to the conscious mind in the form of parapraxes, or slips of the tongue

Id

According to Freud, the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct - Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos

Ego

According to Freud, develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision making component of personality

Super-Ego

According to Freud, incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others

Defense Mechanisms

Behaviorist Approach

A theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. Rejects introspection, as it is not observables and therefore not objective. Founded by Jon Watson

What are the basic assumptions of the behaviorist approach?

All behavior is learned from our environment. When we are born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate). Psychology should be seen as a science, and theories need to be supported by empirical date. Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Behavior is the result of stimulus-response.

What are the strengths of the behaviorist approach?

What are the limitations of the behaviorist approach?

What are the types of behaviorism?

Methodological behaviorism and neobehaviorism

Methodological Behaviorism

Neobehaviorism

Other information about the behaviorist approach

Other information about the behaviorist approach

Cognitive Approach

Psychology should be seen as a science. Humans are information processors.

What are the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response. Cognitive psychology is a pure science, based mainly on laboratory experiments. Behavior can be largely explained in terms of how the mind operates, i.e., the information processing approach. The mind works in a similar way to a computer: inputting, storing, and retrieving data.

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

What are the limitations of the cognitive approach?

Other information about the cognitive approach

Other information about the cognitive approach

Humanistic Approach

What are the basic assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Humans have free will; not all behavior is determined. All individuals are unique and are motivated to achieve their potential. A proper understanding of human behavior can only be achieved by studying humans - not animals. Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?

What are the limitations of the humanistic approach?

Other information about the humanistic approach

Other information about the humanistic approach