ECSU / AP Psych - Biological Bases of Behavior U1

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt even after it is injured or has endured damage (rewiring itself)

The brain is part of which central nervous system?

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brainstem

Located at the base of the brain, connects the brain to the spinal cord (connecting the CNS), transmits messages between the brain and the body

What are the three main parts of the brainstem?

• Medulla Oblongata

• Pons

• Midbrain

What can the spinal cord be remembered as?

The “information highway” for messages between the brain and the body

Medulla

Part of the brainstem; works to perform functions that we don’t consciously think about, such as:

• Heart rate

• Breathing

• Blood pressure

• Digestion

Pons

Located in the brainstem, a bundle of nerves that connects different parts of the nervous system, connects the cerebellum and the cerebrum and specializes in sleep and dreaming

Cerebellum

Located at the base of the brain and considered the “mini brain, deals with muscle movement and procedural learning, BALANCE

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, the cerebral cortex, deals with thought, memory, language, and voluntary movement

Midbrain

Part of the brain stem, it connects the pons and cerebellum to the forebrain, and deals with eye movements and visual reflex processing

Reticular Formation

Pencil-shaped bundle of nerve cells that “cue you”, what wakes you up and gets you aroused or into consciousness, extends from the brain stem to the thalamus

Reward Center

What makes us feel pleasure and happiness, involves feel good neurotransmitters like dopamine

The Limbic System

Located between the brain stem and the cerebral cortex (smack in the middle of the brain), deals with emotion, memory, learning, and motivation

What 4 parts of the brain make up the limbic system?

• Thalamus

• Hypothalamus

• Hippocampus

• Amygdala

Thalamus

Part if the limbic system that processes sensory information other than smell, then sends it to the necessary parts of the brain

• The processing center/post office for the brain

Hypothalamus

Part of the the limbic system that helps maintain homeostasis and regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual motivation, and the endocrine system (hormones)

Pituitary Gland

Releases hormones that affect growth, metabolism, and other glands throughout the body

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system that forms long term memories (does not help store them)

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system that deals with emotion, fear and aggression, and helps with emotional memories and their formation

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain divided into left and right hemispheres and is made up of 4 lobes altogether

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebrum?

Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain that deals with high-level functioning, like complex thought and memory, lines the cerebrum

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain together, string of neural fibers

Occipital Lobes

1 of the 4 lobes of the cerebrum, located in the back of the brain, processes visual information; everything you see is interpreted in the occipital lobes

Temporal Lobes

1 of the 4 lobes of the cerebrum, located in front of the occipital lobes and above our ears, processes sounds and language comprehension, where Wernicke’s Area is located

Where is Wernicke’s Area located, and what is it? What happens if there is damage to this area of the brain?

• Located in the temporal lobes

• Part of the brain that allows you to understand language

• If there is damage to this area, you are still able to speak normally, but what you are saying does not make sense, as you can no longer fully comprehend spoken and written language. This is WERNICKE’S APHASIA

Parietal Lobes

1 of the 4 lobes of the cerebrum, located near the top back part of the brain, has association areas (organization of information), and the somatosensory cortex

What is the somatosensory cortex and where is it located?

This is located in the parietal lobes, deals with touch, pain, and pressure that the body feels

Contralateral Organization

How the brain and the body is set up - the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa

Frontal Lobes

Deals with higher level thinking, organizing speech, solving problems, and managing decision making, along with attention and impulse control

What are the 2 cortexes of the frontal lobes?

Prefrontal Cortex and Motor Cortex

Prefrontal Cortex vs. Motor Cortex

The prefrontal cortex deals with judgement, attention, planning, and complex thought, whereas the motor cortex deals with voluntary muscle movements

What is Broca’s Area, and where in the brain is it located? What happens when there is damage to this area?

• Responsible for creating speech and muscle movement in the mouth

• Located in the frontal lobes

• People CAN understand the language being spoken (unlike Wernicke’s Aphasia), but they cannot speak fluently because the part of their brain that controls mouth muscle movement is impaired. This is called BROCA’S APHASIA.

Everything psychological is also…

Biological

What is the evolutionary process?

The link between genetics and behavior in psychology

What did Darwin say in Natural Selection, and how does that apply to psychology?

• Certain biological and behavioral variations increase an organism’s reproductive and survival chances in a particular environment

• Offspring that survive pass genes to ensuing generations

Evolutionary Psychology

Based on Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection, inherited genes from one organism that allow it to reproduce and survive in its environment will be passed onto it’s offspring

Mutations

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity

Molecular Genetics

Subfield of biology, identifying and studying genetic mutations

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have in the biological makeup?

23

What does each chromosome have?

DNA, which has our unique genetic characteristics

Gene Expression

Combination of recessive and dominant genes and how that expresses itself in our genetic makeup and phenotypes

Two recessive genes

That characteristic will be expressed (no dominant gene to repress it)

One dominant gene one recessive

Dominant gene will be expressed

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene (inherited from parents)

Gender is determined by

Our 23rd pair of chromosomes

Does heredity ever act alone?

No. It is always in partnership with the environment and biological influences (Nutrition, disease, stress)

Epigentics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Environment Interaction

Interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (environment) depends on another factor (heredity)

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes

2 internal communication systems

Nervous System (works quick)

Endocrine System (works slow, hormones)

Neuron Cell

Specialized for cell communication by producing and releasing electrochemical signals called nerve impulses

Dendrites

- The receiver part of the neuron, which accepts most of the incoming messages.

- Consists of finely branched fibers.

- Selectively permeable

Soma

- Cell body

- Dendrites pass messages to it

- Assesses messages and passes along information at the appropriate time

Axon

- Soma passes on message down the axon..

- The axon = a single, larger "transmitter" fiber that extends from the soma.

- This is a one way street

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined

- Keeps action potential covered all the way along the axon

Action Potential

- The fire signal of the neuron

- Electrical charge that carries information down the Axon

- All-or-nothing

- Causes release of Neurotransmitters in terminal buttons

Polarized Neuron

- Neuron's resting state

- Sodium on outside of Neuron

- Potassium on inside of Neuron

Depolarized Neuron

- When the neuron receives enough input, it "fires" in an all-or-nothing manner

- Positive and negative charges of potassium and sodium mix in and out of the neuron

Repolarization

Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell

Synapse

Gap between neurons where information from neurons is released by terminal buttons and neurotransmitters are passed on to adjacent neurons

How do cells connect?

- Electrical messages must pass through the terminal buttons.

- The electrical charge is turned into a chemical message that flows easily across the synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger ,sleep, arousal, and mood

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain

Terminal Buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters can either...

Excite or inhibit neurons

A neurotransmitter that excites

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that inhibits

GABA

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Naturalistic Obervation

• Research method

• Observing real-life situations without controlling any variables

• Operational definitions needed

Surveying

• Research method

• Self-reporting surveys

• Often use Likert Scales

Case Study

• Research method

• Examining an event that has already occurred for the lessons we can derive from that event

Agonist

Mimics a neurotransmitter and opens the receptor site on neurons

Antagonist

Blocks real neurotransmitters from opening up the receptor site

Types of Neurons

Sensory (afferent neurons)

Interneurons (association neurons)

Motor Neurons (efferent neurons)

Sensory neurons

• Also called afferent neurons

• Detect changes in the body and external environment

• Info is transmitted to the brain or spinal cord

Interneurons

• Also called association neurons

• Lie between sensory and motor pathways in the central nervous system

• 90% of our neurons are interneurons

Motor Neurons

• Also called efferent neurons

• Sends signals to muscle and gland cells

• Organs carry out the responses called effectors

2 major components of the nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

2 parts of the central nervous system

1. Brain

2. Spinal cord (connects the brain and the peripheral nervous system)

Peripheral nervous system

Carries messages to and from the CNS

2 major parts of the peripheral nervous system

Somatic and Automatic nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary muscles and transmits sensory information to the CNS

• Experiencing sensations

• Activated by touch and pain

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary body functions

• Heart rate, breathing, digestion

• Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

2 major parts of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

Arouses body to expand energy (Stress)

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms body to preserve and maintain energy (Peace)