GEOPOLITICS REVIEW

Realism

No world government, so states look out for themselves and compete for power. Security = military strength + balance of power.

Liberalism

States can cooperate through institutions, trade, democracy and law. Example: EU, UN.

Rationalism (English School)

Middle of other two. Assumes actors have fixed, stable preferences and act strategically to maximize their utility or efficiency (the logic of consequences). Hedley Bull.

Hobbes

Root of Realism. Without a ruler, life is war of all against all.

Kant

Root of Liberalism. Perpetual peace through international law.

Grotius

Root of Rationalism. Law of nations; 'Mare Liberum' = open seas.

Constructivism

Ideas and identity shape how states act. 'Anarchy is what states make of it.' (Wendt)

Security dilemma

One state arms to feel safe, others arm in response, so everyone ends up less safe.

Human Security

Security should protect individual people, not just the state.

Collective Security

Group of states agree to act together against aggression to keep peace among themselves.

Collective Defense

Allies defend each other from an outside attack. Example: NATO Article 5.

Democratic Peace

Democracies don't go to war with each other.

Cooperative Security

Democratic states linked by alliances and shared values, cooperating on security. Example: the West (NATO + EU).

Geopolitics

How geography shapes power and international relations.

Kjellen

Coined the word 'geopolitics'.

Ratzel

State as a living organism; 'Lebensraum' (living space).

Mahan

SEA POWER: argued that national greatness and global dominance depend on commanding the oceans rather than merely maintaining a coastal defense

the need of a merchant marine to guarantee maritime trade, and a navy, to protect trade and to act quickly in war

Mackinder

HEARTLAND (Central Asia + Eastern Europe): whoever controls it rules the world.

Spykman

RIMLAND (coastal crescent around the Heartland): whoever controls it controls Eurasia, more important than the Heartland for achieving global hegemony

Haushofer

German; Lebensraum and PAN-REGIONS (Germany, Japan, U.S., USSR each dominate a zone), restructure the global order into self-sufficient "Pan-Regions" to break Anglo-American sea-power dominance and provide Germany with its necessary "Lebensraum" (living space)

Networked world

Internet shrinks time and distance. Upside: info and economy. Downside: cyber threats, crime, manipulation.

Middle East geopolitical factors

Religious and ethnic tensions, Sunni vs Shia rivalry, Iran and its proxies vs Israel, terrorism, oil and sea routes.

Russia's reasons for invading Ukraine

Kyiv as Russia's origin, buffer zone against NATO, Crimea and Black Sea Fleet, keep Ukraine away from the West.

Hard power

Force or money to make others act (military, sanctions).

Soft power

Attraction: others want what you want because of your culture and values.

Smart power

Mix of hard + soft power.

Sharp power

authoritarian strategy that uses manipulation, censorship to undermine trust in democratic institutions Example: Russian election interference.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

The rules of war: protect civilians, prisoners and the wounded. Covers HOW war is fought.

Geneva Conventions

Core IHL treaties (1949): protect wounded soldiers, prisoners of war and civilians.

“new wars”

Undeclared wars, often inside states, with non-state actors and civilians as main victims.

Asymmetric warfare

Weak side vs strong side using unconventional tactics (guerrilla).

Hybrid warfare

Mixing military and non-military tools at once (cyberattacks + disinformation + troops).

Gray zone

Hostile actions between peace and war, kept below the level of open war.

Comprehensive approach

Using ALL tools together (military, diplomatic, economic, humanitarian) to manage a crisis.

National Security Strategy

A government's plan to protect the nation using all its tools.

What an NSS protects

Territory, population, national interests.

NSS considerations

Identify threats, prioritize risks, use all tools, cooperate internationally, keep it updated with broad political support.

Risk drivers

Global trends that make threats worse (climate change, poverty, pandemics).

Terrorism

Violence to create fear and force political, religious or ideological change.

Characteristics of terrorism

Political, usually non-state, targets innocents, symbolic, seeks media attention.

Rapoport's four waves

Anarchist (1880) → Anticolonial (1920) → New Left (1960) → Religious (1990-today).

Anarchist wave

1880-1920. Killing rulers to bring down the state.

Anticolonial wave

1920-1960. Fighting for independence from colonial powers.

New Left wave

1960-2000. Radical leftist groups (Red Brigades), Prioritized social justice, anti-war protests

Religious wave

1990-today. Mainly Islamist (al-Qaeda, ISIS). Most deadly.

Al-Qaeda

Sunni jihadist network founded by bin Laden (1988). Did 9/11.

Daesh (ISIS)

Sunni, split from al-Qaeda, declared a caliphate in 2014. Deadliest group today.

Hezbollah

Shia group in Lebanon, backed by Iran.

Hamas

Sunni Palestinian group in Gaza, backed by Iran. 7 Oct 2023 attack.

Houthis

Shia group in Yemen, backed by Iran. Attack Red Sea shipping.

weapons of mass destruction types

Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN).

Chemical weapons

Toxic chemicals that kill or injure (e.g., sarin, chlorine).

Biological weapons

Diseases or toxins used as weapons (bacteria, viruses).

Radiological weapon (dirty bomb)

Normal explosive that spreads radioactive material. Mostly causes panic and disruption.

Nuclear weapons

Fission or fusion bombs. The only WMD that destroys cities and infrastructure.

Nuclear states

U.S., Russia, UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel (unofficial).

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

Treaty to stop the spread of nuclear weapons other than recognized states (1968). Pillars: non-proliferation, peaceful use, disarmament.

North Korean threat

Has nukes, left the NPT in 2003, keeps testing missiles.

Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA)

Enriching uranium but no bomb. 2015 nuclear deal; U.S. left in 2018.

Fragile state

A weak state that can't provide security, services or rule of law.

Failed state

lost its ability to fulfill basic government functions - A state that has completely collapsed. Examples: Somalia, Afghanistan, Haiti.

Why Somalia is a failed state

No working government since 1991, clan war, al-Shabaab terrorism, piracy, famine.

Organized crime

A group of 3+ people committing serious crimes for profit.

Transnational crime

Crime that crosses borders (committed, planned or felt in more than one country).

Main transnational crimes

Drug, human and arms trafficking; cybercrime; money laundering.

Nagorno-Karabakh: cause

The Soviets drew a border that trapped a 94% Christian Armenian population inside the political lines of Muslim Azerbaijan

Nagorno-Karabakh: sides

Armenia (backed by Russia) vs Azerbaijan (backed by Turkey).

Nagorno-Karabakh: outcome

Armenia won the 1990s war; Azerbaijan won in 2020 and took it all back in 2023. Armenians fled.

Strategic natural resource

A scarce, hard-to-replace resource that gives power (water, oil, gas, rare minerals).

EU energy security

The EU imports most of its energy, so it's vulnerable to suppliers like Russia.

EU after the Ukraine war

Cut Russian gas, switched to Norway and U.S. LNG, ending Russian imports by 2028.

European Green Deal

EU plan for net-zero emissions by 2050.

EU nuclear debate

Nuclear is low-carbon but divisive; many EU states now want more of it.

Climate change and security

Causes water and food shortages, migration and instability. A 'risk driver'.

Why cyberspace matters

Everything runs on it: government, economy, energy, communication.

Why cyberspace is vulnerable

No borders, huge valuable data, hard to know who attacked.

Cyber criminality

Online crime for money (ransomware, fraud).

Cyber terrorism

Online attacks for political or ideological goals.

Cyber espionage

Stealing secret information online.

Cyber warfare

A state attacking another state's networks.

Cyber security

Protecting systems and data from cyberattacks.

Threats at sea

Piracy, terrorism, drug/arms/human trafficking, illegal fishing, pollution.

Piracy

Attacking ships on the high seas (outside any country's waters).

Maritime security

Keeping the seas safe from threats while allowing legal shipping and trade.