BIOL 101 Final Exam Review

Trait

any observable or measurable characteristic of an organism

Fitness

contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to other contributors, survival and reproduction both captured

Clade/Monophyletic Group

a biological group that contains a single common ancestor and all of that ancestor's descendants

Mutation

change in the dna sequence of a gene, random

Vestigal Trait

has lost most or all of their function in a species but still present, had old function in an ancestor

Homologous Trait

in different species that are similar in anatomy because they share a common ancestor, but they may have different functions

Evolution

species change from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time though genetic composition

Speciation

the process by which one species splits into two species

Phylogeny

hypothesis of relationships among species, populations, and genes

Convergent Evolution

similar features in independent evolutionary lineages

Genotype

an organism's complete set of genetic material or the specific combination found inside the DNA

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism

Prokaryote

a simple single-celled organism that doesn’t have a nucleus or membrane parts around

Eukaryote

any organism whose cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and other internal, membrane-bound structures called organelles

Cetacean

aquatic marine mammal, ex. whales, dolphins, etc.

Natural Selection

the process where organisms with helpful traits survive better and have more offspring, passing their traits down to the next generation

Adaptation

inherited characteristic of an organism that enhances its survival and reproduction in a specific environment

Sexual Selection

special case of natural selection, mating with the most attractive

DNA

the manual that all organisms use to grow, a common ancesotr for all life

Embryology

embryos of many different vertebrae species look similar in their early stages

Gene

segment of DNA that has the instructions to build a protein or regulatory RNA, unit of heredity

Promoter

specific region of DNA that starts transcription, the DNA polymerase and transcription factors begin to bind

Nucleic Acid

they’re monomers made of polynucleotide chains of repeated building blocks, DNA and RNA

Polymerase

the enzyme that helps make nucleic acid by adding nucleotides to a growing strand using a template strand

Ribosome

the protein complex that receives mRNA and tRNA and translates to amino acids to build proteins

Allele

one or more versions of a gene at a certain location on chromosome

Codon

the sequence of three consecutive nucleotides in a DNA or mRNA molecule that codes an amino acid to start or end protein synthesis

Polymorphism

two or more genetically determined variant forms at the same time, alleles, DNA sequences, protein

Central Dogma

explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, transcription to translation to protein

Transcription

first step in gene expression, RNA polymerase reads DNA and makes an RNA copy, happens in combinations

Translation

second step in gene expression, the ribosome reads the mRNA and tRNA helps assemble amino acids to create proteins

Chromosome

DNA tightly wrapped around proteins that carry an organism’s genetic information from cell to cell

Chromatin

a mixture of DNA, RNA, and proteins that package tightly to go into a nucleus, forms chromosomes

Chromatin Accessibility

the degree DNA is open and exposed to transcription factors, RNA polymerase, and other regulatory proteins

Mitosis

the process when a eukaryotic cell splits its replicated chromosomes into two identical sets of nuclei, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells, asexual

Meiosis

special type of cell division, where in sexually reproducing organisms that reduce the number of chromosomes in half, diploid into haploid, n →2n

Gamete

haploid reproductive cell that comes together with another during sexual reproduction to form a new diploid

Transmembrane Receptor Protein

works cell communication and signal transduction through membrane, allows ligands to trigger cellular response without actually entering the cell, a molecular bridge

Ligand

a chemical messenger that binds to a receptor on a target cell, starting transduction, are hormones, neurotransmitters, or other chemicals

Transcription Factor

a specialized protein that controls the rate at which genetic information is transcribed from DNA into mRNA, gene regulatory proteins

Interphase

where a cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for cell division, cells spend most of their time in this stage

Prophase

the cell gets everything in place for the split, genetic material become chromosomes

Metaphase

the spindle fibers check that the chromosomes are all in the right spot

Anaphase

where the cell copies separate, spindle fibers shorten and pull

Telophase

the cell goes back to normal, new nucleus membranes form around the two separate groups of chromosomes

Cytokinesis

the actual split of the cell where it becomes two

Energy

the capability to do work or cause change

Chemical Bond

a force that hold atoms and ions together to form stable molecules

Enzyme

a protein that helps speed up chemical reactions

Photoautotroph

an organism that uses light energy, carbon dioxide, and water to make their own food through photosynthesis

Chemoautotroph

an organism that uses energy created from other chemical reactions to make their own food

Heterotroph

organism that can’t make their own food

Whale fall

the process when a whale falls to the ocean floor and it becomes its own ecosystem that organisms can feed off of for centuries

Chlorophyll

natural green pigment found in plants and algae that absorb energy from the sun to power photosynthesis

ATP

main energy currency of living things, three attached phosphates

ADP

partially drained energy currency, two attached phosphates

Electron Transport

high energy electrons passed down a protein chain for energy to be released, where most of the cell’s ATP is made

Anabolism

the building of complex molecules and requires energy, endergonic, non-spontaneous, delta G is positive

Catabolism

the breaking down of complex molecules and releases energy, exergonic, spontaneous, delta G is negative

Mitochrondria

performs cellular respiration by breaking down glucose and oxygen, and releases ATP, the electron transport happens in the intermembrane space

Chloroplast

performs photosynthesis by using carbon dioxide, water, and light to create oxygen and glucose, the electron transport happens in the thylakoid space

Light Reactions

where light energy is converted into chemical energy, water split into oxygen, produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen inside the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast

Dark Reactions

the chemical energy, ATP and NADPH, is used to turn carbon dioxide into glucose, happens in the stroma

Cooperative Feeding

multiple animals work together to gather, herd, or share food

Counter-current Exchange

a heat saving system that stops them from losing body heat to ocean water, arteries carrying warm blood from the whale's core run right next to veins carrying cold blood back from exposed areas

Prestin

membrane bound motor protein that shapes quickly to elongate hair cells in order to amplify sound waves, out of the cochlea, useful for echolocation.

Mysticeti

marine and freshwater mammals that use baleen plates to catch prey instead of teeth

Odontoceti

marine and freshwater mammals that use their teeth to catch prey instead of baleen plates

Active Transport

molecules moving through the cell membrane with energy from a region of lower concentration to a higher concentration, against gradient, until equilibrium is reached

Passive Transport

molecules moving through the cell membrane naturally from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentration, with the gradient, until equilibrium is reached

Facilitated Diffusion

movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentration with the help of transport proteins to cross the membrane; polar, hydrophilic molecules

Diffusion

movement of particles from random thermal motion, from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentration; small, hydrophobic, nonpolar molecules

Cell Membrane

the external boundary to the cell and regulates the passage of molecules in and out, selectively permeable

Protein

large, complex macromolecules essential for all living organisms, required for function, structure, and regulation of body's tissues and organs

Redundancy

multiple genes, molecules, cells, or species that perform the same or overlapping biochemical, cellular, or ecological functions

Carrying Capacity

the maximum population size of a species that a specific environment can support

Emergent Property

critical attributes of biological systems that arise from the interaction of parts within a system, individual parts don’t have those properties themselves

Homeostasis

the process by which biological systems maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes

Ecological Niche

the specific set of environmental conditions required by an organism to survive and reproduce, how an organism lives and its role

Positive Feedback Loop

feedback to a control mechanism that amplifies or continues the direction of a stimulus

Negative Feedback Loop

feedback to a control mechanism that increases or decreases a stimulus instead of maintaining it

Marine Biological Pump

the natural process that moves carbon from the atmosphere and surface ocean down into the deep ocean through the life cycle of marine organisms

Thermoregulation

uses internal physiological mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuations, “warm-blooded”

Keystone Species

have disproportionate influence on the structure of their communities

Bottom-up Control

the abundance of organisms at each trophic level is limited by nutrient supply or the availability of food at lower trophic levels

Top-down Control

the abundance of organisms at each trophic level is controlled by the abundance of consumers at higher trophic levels