Child Development: Theoretical Perspectives and Research

Vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts, developmental stages, theoretical perspectives, and research methodologies in Child Development.

Prenatal Period

The developmental stage spanning from conception to birth.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The developmental stage spanning from birth to age 3.

Preschool Period

The developmental stage spanning from ages 3 to 6 years.

Middle Childhood

The developmental stage spanning from ages 6 to 12.

Adolescence

The developmental stage spanning from ages 12 to 20.

Emerging Adulthood

The developmental period spanning from ages 19 to 23.

Race

A concept that originated as a biological classification based on physical and structural characteristics of species, which research shows is not a meaningful way to differentiate people.

Ethnicity

A term relating to cultural background, nationality, religion, and language shared by members who share a common cultural background and group history.

Cohort

A group of people born at around the same time in the same place.

Continuous Change

Gradual developmental change where achievements at one level build on previous levels, and underlying processes remain the same over the life span.

Discontinuous Change

Developmental change occurring in distinct steps or stages, where behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages.

Critical Period

A specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences, and certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development.

Sensitive Period

A particular time when an organism is susceptible to certain kinds of environmental stimuli, but the consequences of absent stimuli are reversible due to human plasticity.

Psychodynamic Perspective

The approach to development stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts beyond a person's conscious awareness.

Unconscious

According to Freud, a part of personality about which a person is unaware, containing hidden forces that act to determine personality and behavior.

Id

The raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth that operates according to the pleasure principle.

Ego

The rational and reasonable part of personality that operates according to the reality principle.

Superego

The aspect of personality that represents a person's conscience, incorporating moral distinctions between right and wrong.

Fixation

In Freud's psychosexual theory, behavior reflecting an earlier developmental stage caused by an unresolved conflict during that stage.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

The view that developmental change occurs throughout life in eight distinct, universal stages, each presenting a crisis or conflict that an individual must address.

Behavioral Perspective

The approach suggesting that keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside environmental stimuli, viewing developmental change in quantitative terms.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in Watson's work in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning formulated by B. F. Skinner in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with positive or negative consequences.

Reinforcement

The process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Punishment

The introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or removal of a desirable stimulus, decreasing the probability that a preceding behavior will occur in the future.

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

An approach to development emphasizing learning by observing the behavior of another person, known as a model.

Cognitive Perspective

The approach focusing on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world and internally represent their environment.

Information-Processing Approaches

Approaches to cognitive development that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information through quantitative advances in handling capacity and processing speed.

Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches

Approaches that focus specifically on neurological activity and brain functions underlying thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behaviors.

Contextual Perspective

The approach that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds.

Individualistic Culture

A culture that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual.

Collectivistic Culture

A culture that emphasizes the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual.

Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky's theory emphasizing how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture.

Evolutionary Perspective

The perspective seeking to identify behavior resulting from genetic inheritance from ancestors, examining how genetics and environmental factors combine to influence behavior.

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Russian-born American psychologist (1917–2005) who developed ecological systems theory, focusing on environmental influences and interconnected systems that shape human development.

Bioecological Model

Bronfenbrenner's systems theory proposing five levels of environment (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) that simultaneously influence individuals.

Microsystem

In the bioecological model, the immediate, everyday environment in which children live, including family, school, peers, and neighborhood play area.

Mesosystem

In the bioecological model, the connections between various aspects of the microsystem, such as links between parents and school.

Exosystem

In the bioecological model, broader societal environments and institutions including local government, community organizations, legal services, and mass media.

Macrosystem

In the bioecological model, the overarching cultural framework, including cultural attitudes, values, and ideologies.

Chronosystem

In the bioecological model, the temporal dimension encompassing sociohistorical conditions and the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course.

Scientific Method

The cornerstone process used by researchers involving three major steps: identifying questions of interest, formulating an explanation, and carrying out research.

Operationalization

The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed.

Correlational Research

A research strategy seeking to identify whether an association or relationship exists between two factors.

Experimental Research

Research designed to discover causal relationships by deliberately introducing a change into a carefully structured situation to observe consequences.

Correlation Coefficient

A mathematical score ranging from $+1.0$ to $-1.0$ that measures the strength and direction of relationship between two factors.

Naturalistic Observation

A type of correlational study involving the observation of naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation.

Ethnography

A qualitative research method borrowed from anthropology used to investigate cultural questions.

Case Studies

A correlational research method involving extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals.

Survey Research

Research in which a sample group representing a larger population is asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic.

Longitudinal Study

A research strategy in which the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age over a period of time.

Cross-Sectional Study

A research strategy in which people of different ages are compared at the exact same point in time.

Sequential Study

A research strategy combining longitudinal and cross-sectional studies by examining a number of different age groups at several points in time.