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Classical Era (Criminology)

A criminological perspective rooted in the belief that individuals possess free will, act rationally by weighing costs and benefits, and choose crime based on hedonistic calculations.

Hedonism

The philosophical assumption that human decision-making is naturally governed by the desire to maximize pleasure and avoid or minimize pain.

Social contract

The reciprocal arrangement in which individuals surrender a portion of their personal freedoms to the state in exchange for collective protection, safety, and social order.

Deterrence Theory (Beccaria)

The principle that criminal behavior is prevented when legal punishments are perceived as certain, swift, and severe enough to outweigh the illicit rewards.

Specific Deterrence vs. General Deterrence

Specific deterrence seeks to stop the punished individual from reoffending, whereas general deterrence seeks to discourage the broader public by example.

Principle of Utility (Utilitarianism)

Bentham's ethical principle holding that actions, laws, and sanctions must aim to produce the greatest net happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people

Positivist Era (Criminology)

A school of thought asserting that human behavior is shaped by forces outside individual control—using empirical scientific methods to identify biological, psychological, and social causes.

Determinism

The criminological premise that behavior is caused by internal or external factors beyond a person's complete voluntary control, contrasting directly with classical free will.

Conflict View of Law and Crime (Marx)

The perspective that legal statutes are crafted to maintain the economic dominance of the ruling class, while unlawful acts highlight underlying class inequality and systemic oppression.

Functions of Crime (Durkheim)

A sociological perspective stating that deviance is normal and unavoidable, serving to clarify social boundaries, reinforce shared norms through punishment, and stimulate adaptive social change.

Anomie (Durkheim)

A state of societal normlessness or deregulation occurring during rapid economic or structural change, leaving individuals disconnected and without clear social guidance.

Atavism (Lombroso)

The early positivist biological hypothesis that offenders are evolutionary throwbacks recognizable by distinct physical characteristics called atavistic stigmata.

Modern Biosocial Research

An evidence-based approach examining how biological vulnerabilities (such as genetics, hormones, and neurology) interact dynamically with social and physical environments, rejecting pure biological determinism.

Parens Patriae

The legal doctrine meaning 'parent of the country,' authorizing the state to act in loco parentis to protect, supervise, and rehabilitate vulnerable or delinquent minors.

Strain Theory (Merton)

A structural theory arguing that criminal conduct arises when individuals face a disconnect between culturally mandated success goals and unequal access to legitimate opportunities.

Durkheim's Anomie vs. Merton's Anomie

Durkheim defined anomie as a breakdown of societal norms, whereas Merton defined it as a cultural imbalance emphasizing monetary success without equal access to institutional means.

Innovation (Merton's Strain Adaptations)

The adaptation most commonly tied to traditional street and economic offenses, characterized by accepting societal goals while rejecting institutionalized, legitimate means.

Zone of Transition (Zone 2)

The area in Burgess and Park's concentric model adjacent to the Central Business District, experiencing the greatest rates of physical deterioration, population turnover, poverty, and social disorganization.

social Disorganization Theory (Shaw & McKay)

The theory proposing that elevated crime rates stem from community-level structural decay—specifically poverty, high residential mobility, and ethnic heterogeneity—rather than individual pathology.

Cultural Transmission of Crime

The mechanism by which delinquent traditions, rationalizations, and criminal techniques are passed down across generations within socially disorganized neighborhoods.

Differential Association Theory (Sutherland)

A social learning perspective stating that lawbreaking is acquired through communication in intimate groups, occurring when definitions favorable to violating the law exceed definitions unfavorable to it.

Labeling Theory (Becker)

A perspective stating that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act, but rather a product of societal definitions and selective rule enforcement against individuals

Secret Deviant vs. Falsely Accused (Becker)

A secret deviant violates rules without receiving public sanction, whereas a falsely accused person observes social rules but is nonetheless perceived and treated as deviant.

Primary Deviance vs. Secondary Deviance (Lemert)

Primary deviance consists of initial rule infractions that remain peripheral to self-image; secondary deviance emerges when a person adopts and internalizes the deviant label into their core identity.

Etiological vs. Epidemiological Explanations

Etiological models investigate the causal origins behind why individuals commit infractions, whereas epidemiological models analyze aggregate geographic and demographic crime distribution patterns.

Consensus vs. Conflict Models

Consensus frameworks assume society is held together by widely shared values reflected in law, whereas conflict frameworks view law as an instrument wielded by dominant groups against subordinate populations.