Section 4: Migration Patterns and Processes
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Which scholars characterized the period since the last 20th century as the “Age of Migration”
Stephen Castles & Mark J. Miller
Spatial mobility
A broad concept that encompasses all forms of geographic movement of humans, like commuting to work
Activity space
Where an individual works, shops, and socializes on a daily basis. A change in an individual’s activity space is a key part of migration
How are tax returns used in the U.S. to get annual migration data
By comparing tax payers’ addresses between consecutive years
What is the relationship between in-migration and out-migration
Places with high in-migration tend to also experience high out-migration
Migration stream
All the migrants moving from a place of origin to a destination
Which state receives a significant amount of migrants from New York
Florida
Directional bias
Migration flows tend to be concentrated in certain directions rather than randomly distributed
Reluctant migration
Voluntary migration that is still caused by an unfavorable situation, like an economic downturn
Transnational migration
When immigrants maintain strong social, economic, and political ties to their home countries
What proportion of people get cold feet and don’t actually move despite expressing intent to
1/3
Stepwise migration(also known as step migration)
When rural migrants intend to move to a big city but do so in a number of incremental steps: for example, first moving to a nearby town, then a larger city further away, then to their final destination
Migrant-capital
A migrant’s savings, skills, and social networks
Chain migration
When the initial movement of migrants is followed by other people from the same origin
Repeat migration
When people migrate multiple times
What percentage of migration events are repeat migrants
over 60%
Seasonal migration
The periodic movement of people in response to seasonal changes in employment opportunities or weather conditions
Snowbirds
Seasonal migrants from the Northern U.S. and Canada who move to second homes or live in RVs in warmer regions during winter but move back home in the summer
Ernst Georg Ravenstein(1834 - 1913)
A geographer and cartographer born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany to a family of cartographers
How old was Ravenstein when he moved to England
18
What positions did Ravenstein hold
He worked in the Topological Department of the British War Office from 1855 to 1875, and later became a professor of geography at Bedford College in England
How was Ravenstein rewarded for his contributions to cartography
The Royal Geography Society awarded him the inaugural Victoria Medal in 1902
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
Most migrants move only a short distance
Migration proceeds geographically in a step-by step fashion
Long-distance migrants generally move to one of the great centers of commerce and industry
Each main stream of migration produces a compensating counterstream
Urban dwellers are less migratory than people in rural areas
Women are more migratory than men within their home country, but men more frequently venture beyond their home country
Most migrants are adults, and families rarely move out of their home country
The volume of migration increases as industries and commerce develop and as transportation improves
Economic factors are the main cause of migration
When did Ravenstein publish the three papers in which he developed his laws of migration
1876, 1885, and 1889
Which of Ravenstein’s laws was likely not true when it was made and is still not valid today
The 5th one: Urban dwellers are less migratory than people in rural areas
Migration Age Profile/Schedule
The relationship between migration intensity and age, which varies across regions
Brain drain/gain
The loss/gain of younger, more educated, and more skilled residents due to migration
Who developed the Mobility Transition Model
Pennsylvania State University geographer Wilbur Zelinsky(1921-2013) in 1971
Which types of migration did Zelinsky examine
Movement towards to the agricultural frontier, or newly developed agricultural areas
Rural-urban migration
Urban-urban or intra-urban migration
Circulation(short-term and cyclical movements that occur repeatedly on a regular basis)
International migration
What are the five stages of the Mobility Transition Model
Premodern traditional societies: little migration and people only move from village to village
Early transitional societies: increased circulation and large-scale rural-urban migration, migration to agricultural frontiers, and emigration
Late transitional societies: emigration, migration to agricultural fronties, and rural-urban migration decrease but circulation increases
Advanced societies: More inter and intra-urban migration and high circulation but lower rural-urban and frontier migration
Superadvanced society(a hypothesized future): residential mobility diminishes as technology makes physical movement unnecessary
Which stage of the Mobility Transition Model has the most movement
Stage 2: Early transitional societies
What is the Current Population Survey’s Annual Social and Economic Supplement(CPS ASEC)
A census taken by the U.S Census Bureau on the reasons people migrate in the U.S
Percentage of U.S migrants for family-related reasons in 2000 and 2023
2000: 26.6%
2023: 22.7%
Percentage of U.S migrants moved for employment-related reasons in 2000 and 2023
2000: 17.2%
2023: 21%
Percentage of U.S. migrants moved for housing-related reasons in 2000 and 2023
2000: 49.7%
2023: 41.3%
Percentage of U.S. migrants moved for miscellaneous reasons in 2000 and 2023
2000: 6.5%
2023: 15%
What events affected the data in the 2000 and 2023 CPS ASEC
“Natural disaster” was added as a reason in 2006 after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
“Foreclosure/eviction” was added as a reason in 2012 after the subprime mortgage crisis
“Relationship with unmarried partner” was added as a reason in 2020
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted mobility
Baby-boomers are retiring and therefore relocating
Number of movers in the U.S in 2000 vs 2023
2000: 43.4 million
2023: 25.6 million
This is consistent with a downward trend in mobility in the U.S since the mid-1980s
The Macro Adjustment Theory
The theory that interregional wage differences are the primary driver of migration: people migrate to high-wage areas and the growing supply of labor brings wages down, whereas wages rise in low-wage areas with high out-migration, bringing wages to an equilibrium
Concerns with the Macro Adjustment Theory
It assumes people are completely rational
Research shows that migration tends to reinforce differences in wages and maintain disequilibrium
The Human Capital Model
An approach that views migration as an investment migrants make based on anticipated future returns
Concerns with the Human Capital Model
Assumes rational behavior
Assumes people are well-informed about various locations
Fails to explain why only a small amount of people migrate
The New Economics of Labor Migration(NELM) Theory
An approach that treats migration as a family decision rather than an individual choice
Remittances
Earnings sent back home by migrants
The Dual Labor Market Theory
The theory that advanced industrial societies have a capital-intensive primary sector that hires high-skilled and well-paid workers, and a labor-intensive secondary sector that hires low-skilled and low-wage workers, with immigrants being needed to fulfill the secondary sector
Who developed the Dual Labor Market Theory
Labor economist Michael Piore in 1979
The Life Course Approach to Migration
An approach that aims to establish a relationship between transitions in an individual’s life and migration, e.g. first job, marriage, retirement
The Push-Pull Theory of Migration
The theory that migration decisions are affected by negative aspects of a person’s current place of residence and attributes of other places that appeal to them
Who developed the Push-Pull Theory of Migration
Sociologist Everett S. Lee in 1966
Intervening obstacles
Challenge potential migrants must overcome to relocate(distance, finances, emotional toll, legal restrictions)
Cumulative inertia
A potential migrants unwillingness or resistance to move
How many people were internally displaced worldwide at the end of 2024
83.4 million
How many immigrants were recorded worldwide in 2024
About 300 million
What percentage of people in the U.S. moved every year from the 1950s to the 1970s
20%
What percentage of people in the U.S. moved every year in the 1990s
16-17%
What percentage of people in the U.S. moved every year in the 2000s
13-14%
What percentage of people in the U.S. moved in 2021
8.4%, a historically low level
What percentage of people in the U.S. moved in 2023
8.7%
The Hukou System
A household registration system implemented by the Chinese government in 1949 to strictly control internal migration by giving children residence based on their parents hukou status, that then determined their social status and access to resources
Intraurban migration
Migration within the same metropolitan area or city
How often do American households move, on average
Every 5 to 7 years, with 50% of these moves being in the same city
What provides the core framework for international laws regarding refugees
The UN 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees
The Principle of Non-Refoulement
The international law that prohibits countries from returning refugees to their home countries against their will
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR)
A UN Agency established in 1950 to aid and protect refugees and other displaced people
Which 8 countries hosted the most refugees in 2023
Iran
Turkey
Germany
Pakistan
Uganda
Russia
Poland
Bangladesh
How many people were forcibly displaced worldwide by April 2025
122 million people, or 1 in 67 people
Refugees: 42.7 million
Internally displaced persons: 73.5 million
How many less people were forcefully displaced in April 2025 than at the end of 2024
1.1 million
How many countries generated 10,000 or more refugees in 2024
89
How many countries generated 100,000 or more refugees in 2024
41
How many countries generated 1,000,000 or more refugees in 2024
10
How many countries had 10,000 or more internally displaced persons in 2024
49
How many countries had 100,000 or more internally displaced persons in 2024
36
How many countries had 1,000,000 or more internally displaced persons in 2024
16
What were the top 10 refugee source countries in 2024
Venezuela
Afghanistan
Syria
Palestine
Ukraine
Sudan
Myanmar
DR Congo
Somalia
What were the top 10 IDP source countries in 2024
Sudan
Syria
Colombia
DR Congo
Yemen
Afghanistan
Ukraine
Myanmar
Nigeria
Somalia
What percentage of refugees worldwide were from the top 10 refugee source countries in 2024
91%
What percentage of IDPs worldwide were from the top 10 IDP source countries in 2024
75%
What proportion of people in Sudan have been forced to flee their homes
1/3
Who is the civil war in Sudan between
The military government Sudanese Armed Forces(SAF) and the parliamentary Rapid Support Forces(RSF)
How many people were forcibly displaced by the end of 2024 in DRC
7.4 million people
Voluntary Repatriation
When refugees decide to return to their home country after the problem that forced them to move is resolved
How many refugees worldwide returned to their home countries in 2024
1.6 million, the highest figure for voluntary repatriation in more than 20 years
What percentage of refugees flee to neighboring countries
60 to 80%
Resettlement to country of first asylum
When refugees stay in the nearest country that provides them asylum
Resettlement in a third country
When refugees to another country after a period in the country of first asylum
How many refugees were resettled to third countries in 2024
188,880
How many refugees were granted permanent residency or citizenship in their host country in 2024
88,900
Top 10 countries to which refugees fled in 2024
United States
Iran
Germany
Turkey
Jordan
Colombia
Palestine
Uganda
Pakistan
Peru
Top 10 countries that gave refugees protection in 2024
Germany
Chad
Poland
Uganda
South Sudan
Turkey
Spain
Algeria
France
Czech Republic
What did U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower do in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 during the height of the Cold War
He initiated “Operation Safe Haven”, using his attorney general William Rogers’ parole authority to bypass standard immigration procedures and admit a large number of Hungarian refugees
How many Hungarian refugees were admitted to the U.S in 1956
30,000
Where was the central processing point of Operation Safe Haven
Camp Kilmer, New Jersey
What did Congress do in 1958 during Operation Safe Haven
Passed legislation allowing Hungarian parolees to become lawful permanent residents
How did the U.S respond to the Cuban Revolution in 1959
In the 35 years following the revolution, the U.S. accepted all Cubans fleeing the nation as refugees
The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act
The Act that formalized U.S. refugee policy by allowing 6% of all immigrants to enter as refugees if they were:
Located outside the United States
Have a well-founded fear of persecution
Are of special humanitarian concern to the United States
Are not being firmly resettled in another country
Not subject to any other “grounds of inadmissibility”(criminal history, disease)
When did the U.S. formally recognize the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
1968
When did the U.S adopt the UNs definition of refugee
In 1980 when Congress passed the Refugee Act
The Office of Refugee Resettlement(ORR)
A government agency established by the Refugee Act to manage domestic resettlement programs and provide assistance to refugees
The Presidential Determination of Refugee Admissions
The maximum number of people that can be admitted as refugees in the upcoming fiscal year, determined by the president as mandated by the Refugee Act
What has been the trend in the maximum number of refugees determined since 1980
There has been a downward trend