Psychology: Key Concepts, Historical Roots, and Research Methods

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Empiricism

Knowledge can be gained through observation, experience, scientific research

Experimental Psychologists

Conduct research in colleges/universities

Teachers in Psychology

Educators in high school and higher education

Applied Psychologists

Examine human issues: work, training, design, treatment

Industrial Organizational Psychology

Focuses on work environment to maximize output and morale

Sports Psychology

Maximizes performance, motivation, control under pressure

Engineering Psychology

Ensures design is optimal for human use (e.g., airplanes, military)

School Psychology

Diagnoses learning/behavior problems and interprets psychological tests

Rehabilitation Psychology

Treats people with physical and mental disorders (e.g., stroke, addiction)

Clinical/Counseling Psychology

Helps with social/emotional adjustment for problems in jobs, relationships, school

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of Psychology; established the first lab to study the mind in 1879

Conscious Experience

What goes on inside our minds: sensations, feelings, images

Stimulus

Any physical energy that evokes a response

Introspection

Examine your own thoughts, feelings, or sensations in response to a stimulus

Structuralism

School of thought analyzing the elements of conscious experience

William James

American psychologist known for Functionalism

Functionalism

Mental processes understood in terms of adaptive purpose and function

John B. Watson

American psychologist known for the 'Little Albert' experiment and Behaviorism

Behaviorism

School of psychology emphasizing the study of observable behavior as a reaction to stimuli

Pros of Behaviorism

Can be measured in a scientific manner

Cons of Behaviorism

Thoughts and feelings are not observable

Biological Perspective

Focuses on biological events and processes that underlie behavior

Behavioral Perspective

Behavior is shaped by learning and focuses on observable behaviors

Cognitive Perspective

Behavior understood in terms of mental processing of information

Developmental Perspective

Behavior and cognitive processes change over the life span

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on the possible role of evolved psychological mechanisms in human behavior.

Inherited Tendencies

Shaped by evolution.

Humanistic Psychology

Behavior is guided by self images, perceptions of the world, and the need for personal growth.

Psychodynamic Psychology

Behavior is directed by unconscious forces within one's personality.

Sociocultural Psychology

Behavior is shaped through the social and cultural aspects a person is subjected to.

The Scientific Method

Five step process for empirical investigation.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to verify your own views.

Availability Heuristic

Mental shortcut suggesting that the easier it is to bring something to mind, the more frequent or important it is.

Rational versus Intuitive Thought

Danger of 'gut-level' thinking.

Developing a Hypothesis

Theory to be tested and shown as being correct or incorrect.

Operational Definitions

Specific descriptions of conditions, what is being measured and how is it measured.

Controlled Test

Seek to eliminate conditions that would interfere with the experiment.

Independent Variable

Only condition that the experimenter will manipulate.

Random Assignment

Chance determines grouping.

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome of the independent variable.

Analyze Results

Accept or reject hypothesis based on statistical analysis.

Naturalistic Study

Study of behavior in natural settings/typical environment.

Observer Effect

Changes in behavior caused by the awareness of being observed.

Correlation Study

Existence of consistent systematic relationship between two events, measures or variables.

Coefficient of Correlation

Statistical range from -1.00 to +1.00, indicating direction and degree of correlation.

Causation

Act of causing some effect.

Experimental Method

Allows researchers to draw cause and effect conclusions.

Placebo Effect

Changes in behavior resulting from the expectation that a treatment will have some effect.

Single Blind Study

Study in which participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments.

Double Blind Study

Study in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments.

Replication

Requiring the results of an experiment to be repeated before being accepted with confidence.

Survey Method

Use of public polling techniques to answer psychological questions.

Informed Consent

Give participants complete information about research beforehand.

Debriefing

Provide participants with all information about a study after it's completed.

Confidentiality

Records of participants should be held private.