ANTHRO 105 Exam 2 - MASTER: All 100 Terms

All four stages combined: 18 evolution + 25 diversity + 21 nutrition + 36 ecology/social terms. Study definitions -> type terms; accept listed synonyms. Use after stage readings, then mix all terms and revisit errors. Covers review-sheet vocabulary; does not predict exact exam questions.

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history and branching relationships of organisms inferred through common ancestry.

Primitive trait

An ancestral trait retained in a focal group and also found in more distantly related groups; not a measure of inferiority.

Derived trait

A newly evolved trait relative to the ancestral condition of the lineage or clade being compared.

Parallel evolution

Independent evolution of similar changes through modification of the same ancestral structures or mechanisms in different lineages; course example: independent loss of functional GULO.

Charles Darwin

Naturalist who developed evolution by natural selection: heritable variation affects survival and reproduction, changing populations over generations.

Natural selection

Differential survival and reproduction associated with heritable trait variation, causing those variants to change in frequency across generations.

Stabilizing selection

Selection favoring intermediate trait values over either extreme.

Artificial selection

Evolutionary change caused by humans preferentially breeding organisms with desired heritable traits.

Convergent evolution

Independent evolution of similar adaptations in different lineages, without the similarity being inherited from their recent common ancestor.

Modern Synthesis

Integration of Darwinian natural selection with Mendelian genetics and population genetics to explain evolutionary change.

Mutation

A change in DNA sequence that can create a new allele; it is not directed by an organism's needs.

Gene flow

Transfer of alleles between populations through movement and successful reproduction.

Genetic drift

Change in allele frequencies due to chance sampling rather than fitness differences; especially strong in small populations.

Genetic bottleneck

A sharp reduction in an existing population that leaves a small, potentially unrepresentative sample of its former genetic variation.

Founder effect

Genetic drift when a small set of individuals establishes a new population with an unrepresentative sample of source-population alleles.

Heritability

The proportion of phenotypic variation associated with genetic variation in a specified population and environment; not the genetic percentage of one individual.

Monogenic trait

A trait whose variation is primarily associated with a single gene.

Polygenic trait

A trait influenced by variation at multiple genes, often producing continuous variation together with environmental influences.

Nocturnal

Primarily active during the night.

Diurnal

Primarily active during daylight hours.

Cathemeral

Active during both daytime and nighttime portions of the daily cycle.

Primate

A member of the mammalian order containing strepsirrhines, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes including humans; characterized by a suite of visual, grasping, and life-history tendencies.

Life history

The schedule of growth, development, maturation, reproduction, and survival across an organism's life.

Haplorrhine

Member of the primate branch containing tarsiers and anthropoids, including monkeys and apes; lacks the typical strepsirrhine wet nose and toothcomb.

Strepsirrhine

Member of the primate branch containing lemurs, lorises, and galagos, typically characterized by a wet nose, toothcomb, and tapetum.

Toothcomb

A closely spaced, forward-projecting set of lower teeth used especially for grooming in most strepsirrhines.

Tapetum

A reflective layer behind the retina that improves low-light sensitivity; typical of many strepsirrhines and absent in tarsiers.

Catarrhine

Old World anthropoid branch containing Old World monkeys and apes including humans; typically downward-facing nostrils and 2.1.2.3 dentition.

Platyrrhine

New World monkey of Central or South America, typically broad outward-facing nostrils and three premolars per quadrant.

Prehensile tail

A tail capable of grasping objects and supporting or stabilizing the body, found in some New World monkeys.

Lemur

A strepsirrhine belonging to the diverse radiation native to Madagascar.

Loris

An African or Asian strepsirrhine typically associated with nocturnal, slow arboreal movement.

Galago

An African nocturnal strepsirrhine, also called a bushbaby, with specialized leaping abilities.

Tarsier

A small Asian nocturnal haplorrhine specialized for animal prey and vertical clinging and leaping; lacks a toothcomb and tapetum.

Ape (hominoid)

Member of Hominoidea: small apes and great apes including humans; typically tailless with flexible shoulders and Y-5 lower molars.

Small apes

Gibbons and siamangs, the Asian family Hylobatidae, often specialized for brachiation and pair living.

Great apes

The family Hominidae: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans.

Monkey

Common name for New World and Old World monkeys; Old World monkeys are more closely related to apes than to New World monkeys.

Cercopithecoids

Old World monkeys, comprising cercopithecines and colobines.

Cercopithecines

Old World monkey subgroup including baboons and macaques, with varied diets and habitats and typically cheek pouches.

Colobines

Old World monkey subgroup in Africa and Asia, often leaf- and seed-eating, with specialized sacculated foreguts for microbial digestion.

Vertical clinging and leaping

Locomotion involving upright clinging to supports and hind-limb-powered leaps between them.

Arboreal

Living or moving primarily in trees.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Energy expenditure for basic body maintenance at rest under standardized conditions, excluding activity, growth, and reproductive costs.

Active metabolism

Energy expenditure associated with activities such as locomotion, foraging, and other behavior beyond basal maintenance.

Growth rate

The pace of increase in body size or tissue, which affects the resources needed for growth.

Reproductive effort

Resources allocated to reproduction, including pregnancy, lactation, mating effort, and care of offspring.

Macronutrients

Nutrients required in relatively large amounts, especially carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Micronutrients

Essential nutrients needed in small amounts, including vitamins and minerals.

Energy

The capacity to do biological work, supplied by metabolism of usable food compounds; not itself a nutrient category.

Ripe fruit

Mature fruit that is often softer and richer in readily available sugars than its unripe state, though composition varies.

Unripe fruit

Immature fruit that is often tougher, less sugary, or more chemically defended than ripe fruit.

Mature leaves

Fully developed leaves that generally contain more structural fiber and are harder to process than young leaves.

Young leaves

Developing leaves that often contain less fiber and more accessible protein than mature leaves, with variable chemical defenses.

Exudate (gum)

Plant material released from tissue, often after damage; gum is a carbohydrate-rich exudate eaten by some primates.

Insectivore

An animal whose diet emphasizes insects or similar small animal prey; primate examples tend to be small with sharp-cusped teeth.

Folivore

An animal whose diet emphasizes leaves, commonly associated with shearing molars and substantial microbial digestive capacity.

Frugivore

An animal whose diet emphasizes fruit, often associated with broad incisors and relatively low, rounded molar cusps.

Gummivore

An animal whose diet emphasizes gums or related plant exudates; specialized gougers have teeth adapted to opening bark.

Foregut

The anterior portion of the digestive tract; in colobines, the specialized stomach provides a major microbial chamber.

Fiber

Structural plant carbohydrates and related material that resist the animal's own digestive enzymes and may be processed by gut microbes.

Foregut fermentation

Microbial breakdown of food in a chamber before the main intestinal digestive regions, as in the colobine sacculated stomach.

Gut microbes

Microorganisms living in the digestive tract that can help process food, including fiber, and sometimes plant chemicals.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)

Products of microbial fermentation that a host can absorb and use as energy.

Socioecological model

A framework linking food distribution and predation risk to female distribution and relationships, male distribution, and social organization.

Vigilance

Monitoring the surroundings for potential danger, including predators.

Dilution effect

Reduction in an individual's share of predation risk when an attack affects only a limited number of members of a larger group.

Interspecific (polyspecific) association

Association among individuals of different species, potentially providing benefits such as complementary predator detection.

Plant secondary compounds (secondary metabolites)

Plant substances outside basic primary metabolism, many serving defensive roles such as deterring feeding or disrupting digestion or physiology.

Plant physical defenses

Structural barriers to herbivory, such as thorns, spines, or tough tissues.

Plant chemical defenses

Compounds that make feeding costly by inhibiting digestion, poisoning consumers, or otherwise deterring consumption.

Bamboo lemur

A Malagasy lemur associated with feeding on bamboo, including cyanide-containing foods, illustrating specialized tolerance and plant-consumer interactions.

Cyanide

A toxic compound that interferes with cellular respiration; relevant to the bamboo-lemur feeding example.

Coevolutionary process

Reciprocal evolutionary change between interacting lineages as each creates selection pressures on the other.

Generalist

An organism using a relatively broad range of resources; dietary breadth can help distribute exposure to different plant toxins.

Specialist

An organism using a relatively narrow range of resources, often with adaptations for exploiting them.

Anthropogenic

Caused by human activity.

Anthropogenic change

A human-caused alteration of environmental conditions, such as agriculture, urbanization, habitat fragmentation, or climate change.

Simplified socioecological model

The lecture's reduced framework connecting food and predation with female distribution/relationships and male distribution to explain social patterns.

Pair bonding

A persistent social association between two partners; does not by itself prove exclusive genetic mating.

Solitary or semi-solitary

Social organization in which adults often forage separately while retaining social contacts and overlapping ranges; not complete absence of social life.

Polyandry

A mating system in which one female mates with multiple males.

Polygynandry

A mating system in which multiple males and multiple females each have multiple partners.

Polygyny

A mating system in which one male mates with multiple females.

Alloparental care

Care of an infant by individuals other than its mother, such as fathers, siblings, or other group helpers; some sources use the narrower nonparental definition.

Dominance interactions

Encounters with asymmetrical outcomes, such as consistent winning and submission, used to infer dominance relationships.

Dominance matrix

A table recording outcomes of interactions between pairs of individuals; row and column labels identify winners and losers.

Rank

An individual's relative position within a social dominance hierarchy.

Dispersal

Departure from the natal group or area to settle or reproduce elsewhere.

Male philopatry

A pattern in which males tend to remain in their natal group or area.

Female philopatry

A pattern in which females tend to remain in their natal group or area.

Dominant

The individual that consistently wins or receives submission relative to another in a dominance relationship.

Subordinate

The individual that consistently loses or submits relative to another in a dominance relationship.

Affiliative behavior

Friendly or relationship-maintaining behavior, such as grooming, contact, or social support.

Aggressive behavior

Threatening or antagonistic behavior, including threats, chases, or attacks; injury is not required.

Intergroup encounters

Meetings or interactions between members of different social groups, ranging from tolerance or avoidance to aggression.

Between-group interaction

Interaction involving members of different social groups.

Within-group interaction

Interaction among members of the same social group.

Mating system

The pattern of mating relationships among individuals, distinct from simply who lives together.

Reproductive strategy

A suite of traits and behaviors affecting mating, offspring production, care, and lifetime reproductive success; not necessarily conscious planning.