AP Comparative politics and government - Russia

Who led the Russian Communist Revolution, founded the Soviet Union, and believed a professional revolutionary party was necessary to lead the working class toward communism?

Lenin

What political organization did Lenin believe was necessary to lead the revolution, organize workers, and rule on behalf of the masses?

Vanguard Party

What organizational principle requires members of a Communist Party to debate internally but follow the party's final decisions publicly and maintain unity?

Democratic Centralism

What Soviet governing body consisted of top Communist Party leaders and made major policy decisions?

Politburo

What Soviet leader consolidated power in 1928 and ruled until his death in 1953, using authoritarian rule and a cult of personality?

Joseph Stalin

What term describes a leader building an exaggerated public image of themselves as heroic, powerful, or almost infallible, as Stalin did?

Cult of Personality

What Soviet economic system involved forced industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and government control over production under Stalin?

Stalinism

What policy forced peasants to combine individual farms into large, collectively operated farms under state control?

Collectivization

What was the name for relatively wealthy peasants whom Stalin targeted during collectivization, often through property confiscation, deportation, or execution?

Kulaks

What devastating famine occurred in Soviet Ukraine in 1932–1933 during forced collectivization and grain requisitions, killing millions?

Holodomor / Ukrainian famine

What Soviet leader succeeded Stalin and served from 1953 to 1964, criticizing some of Stalin's abuses while maintaining Communist Party rule?

Nikita Khrushchev

What term describes Khrushchev's effort to reject Stalin's cult of personality, criticize his abuses, and reduce some repression?

De-Stalinization

What 1956 address at the 20th Communist Party Congress condemned Stalin's abuses of power, purges, and cult of personality?

Secret Speech

What foreign-policy approach did Khrushchev promote, arguing that the Soviet Union and capitalist countries could compete without inevitable direct war?

Peaceful Coexistence

What Khrushchev agricultural initiative attempted to increase Soviet grain production by cultivating previously unused land, particularly in Kazakhstan and Siberia?

Virgin Lands Campaign

What 1962 Cold War confrontation occurred after the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, bringing the United States and USSR close to nuclear war?

Cuban Missile Crisis

What happened to Khrushchev in 1964 after other Communist Party leaders became dissatisfied with his leadership and policy decisions?

He was removed from power.

What Soviet leader ruled from 1964 to 1982, strengthened the party bureaucracy, and became associated with economic stagnation and political conservatism?

Leonid Brezhnev

What system refers to lists of important Communist Party officials, candidates, and available government or party positions used to control appointments and advancement?

Nomenklatura

What political and economic condition during Brezhnev's era involved slow economic growth, corruption, internal divisions, and increasing public cynicism toward the Communist Party?

Graying of Communism

What informal arrangement involved citizens accepting authoritarian Communist rule in exchange for employment, subsidized housing, social welfare, and economic security?

Tacit Social Contract

What Soviet leader ruled from 1985 to 1991 and introduced reforms intended to improve the economy and make the political system more open?

Mikhail Gorbachev

What policy encouraged greater openness, more public discussion, increased media freedom, and acknowledgment of past Soviet abuses?

Glasnost

How did greater openness under Gorbachev weaken the Communist Party's legitimacy?

It exposed historical abuses, corruption, government failures, and economic problems, increasing public criticism.

What economic reform program attempted to restructure the Soviet economy, improve efficiency, and introduce limited market mechanisms and decentralization?

Perestroika

What Gorbachev foreign-policy approach reduced confrontation with the West and rejected the idea that the USSR had to maintain control over its Eastern European satellite states?

New Thinking

What term describes countries in Eastern Europe that were under Soviet political, military, and economic influence during the Cold War?

Satellite States

What term refers to former Soviet republics outside Russia, such as Ukraine and Georgia, which became independent after the Soviet Union dissolved?

Near Abroad

What happened to the Soviet Union in 1991 after growing nationalism, political conflict, and economic crisis undermined the central government?

It dissolved into 15 independent republics, ending the USSR.

What is the key contrast between Stalin and Khrushchev?

Stalin intensified repression and promoted a cult of personality; Khrushchev criticized Stalin's abuses and reduced some repression but maintained one-party rule.

Who became Russia's first president after the Soviet Union dissolved and led the country through the turbulent transition of the 1990s?

Boris Yeltsin

What 1993 document established the constitutional framework of the modern Russian Federation, creating a strong presidency and a bicameral legislature?

1993 Russian Constitution

What was the political conflict in 1993 in which Yeltsin confronted a legislature resisting his policies, culminating in the use of military force against parliament?

1993 Constitutional Crisis

What does the 1993 Russian Constitution establish about the president's role in government?

It creates a powerful executive presidency with significant authority over the government, appointments, and the legislative process.

What rapid economic transition attempted to replace Soviet central planning with private ownership, market prices, and a free-market economy during Yeltsin's presidency?

Shock Therapy

What is economic liberalization, the process associated with Yeltsin's reforms?

Reducing state control over economic activity, allowing market prices and private businesses, and opening parts of the economy to competition.

What were the consequences of Russia's rapid transition to a market economy during the 1990s?

Severe economic disruption, inflation, poverty, inequality, insecurity, and the concentration of wealth among a small group of businesspeople.

What term describes extremely wealthy and politically influential businesspeople who acquired formerly state-owned Russian industries during privatization?

Oligarchs

What privatization arrangement allowed selected Russian businesspeople to lend money to the government in exchange for shares in valuable state-owned companies, which some later acquired?

Loans-for-Shares Scheme

Which industries were particularly important to the rise of Russian oligarchs during the 1990s?

Energy, oil, natural gas, metals, and other natural-resource industries.

What criminal phenomenon expanded in Russia during the economic and political turmoil of the 1990s?

Organized Crime / Russian Mafia

What factors contributed to Yeltsin's declining legitimacy?

Economic and social turmoil, corruption, declining living standards, political instability, health concerns, and reduced international prestige.

How did Russia's international position change after the Soviet Union dissolved?

It lost its status as one of two global superpowers and experienced a major decline in international influence and prestige.

What was the Chechen conflict that began in 1994 under Yeltsin, involving a separatist republic seeking independence from Russia?

First Chechen War (1994–1996)

What is Chechnya in Russia's federal system?

A constituent republic within the Russian Federation that experienced separatist conflict and later faced renewed conflict under Putin.

What happened in Russia in 1993 when hardliners and opponents of Yeltsin challenged the direction of the government?

A constitutional crisis and armed confrontation occurred; Yeltsin retained power and the new constitution strengthened the presidency.

What is the most important economic contrast between the Soviet system and Yeltsin's reforms?

The Soviet command economy relied on state planning and state ownership; Yeltsin's reforms attempted a rapid transition toward private ownership and market-based allocation.

Who became president of Russia in 2000, served two consecutive presidential terms until 2008, returned to the presidency in 2012, and strengthened central executive authority?

Vladimir Putin

What economic model allowed Russia's government to retain control or influence over strategic industries while using profits from oil and natural gas exports to support economic growth?

State Capitalism

How did Putin strengthen his personal and political control over the Russian government?

He appointed loyalists, centralized authority, strengthened executive control over regional leaders, and reduced the independence of political opponents and institutions.

What term refers to Putin's trusted associates, especially people with backgrounds in security services, the military, or intelligence agencies, who gained important government and business positions?

Siloviki

What term describes a political system with regular elections and some democratic institutions but significant restrictions on competition, civil liberties, and meaningful political opposition?

Illiberal Democracy

What democratic feature remains present in Russia's political system even though electoral competition is heavily restricted?

Regular elections are held, but restrictions on candidates, media, opposition, and electoral fairness limit genuine competition.

What practices undermine the fairness of elections in an illiberal political system?

Restrictions on candidates and parties, media bias, alleged or documented electoral fraud, unequal access to resources, and suppression of opposition.

What party became Putin's dominant political party and benefited from electoral rules and government influence that weakened competing parties?

United Russia

What youth organization associated with Putin's political movement was used to mobilize support for the government and promote pro-Kremlin political activity?

Nashi

What was the significance of reports that United Russia received over 90% of the vote in certain Chechen elections during the 2007–2011 period?

They illustrated the extreme dominance of the governing party in a region where meaningful electoral competition was questioned.

How did restrictions on registration and party organization help United Russia maintain its dominance?

They made it more difficult for smaller parties and independent candidates to compete effectively.

What change did Putin introduce concerning Russia's regional governors during his first presidential term?

He replaced direct gubernatorial elections with a system in which regional governors were appointed through the president-led system.

What change did Dmitry Medvedev make concerning regional governors during his presidency?

He restored direct elections for regional governors in 2012, although candidates remained subject to legal and political restrictions.

What additional regional officials did Putin appoint to strengthen federal control over the regions?

Presidential envoys or representatives overseeing the federal districts.

What is the term for Putin's system of concentrating authority at the top of the government and ensuring that orders and control flow downward through the political hierarchy?

Power Vertical

How did changes to the State Duma electoral system during Putin's presidency help strengthen United Russia?

Changes to party-list voting rules, electoral thresholds, candidate-registration requirements, and restrictions on competition advantaged large established parties.

What electoral system did Russia use for the State Duma in the 2007 and 2011 elections?

Proportional representation using nationwide party lists, with a 7% threshold in those elections.

What electoral system does Russia currently use for the State Duma?

A mixed system: 225 deputies are elected through proportional representation and 225 through single-member districts. The Duma has 450 deputies and five-year terms.

What is the term for restricting journalists, controlling media access, or punishing criticism of the government?

Restriction of Press Freedom

How can a politicized judiciary weaken democracy?

Courts may be used selectively against political opponents, while failing to act independently of the executive.

What happened to the Russian economy during Putin's first two presidential terms, from 2000 to 2008?

The economy recovered substantially, helped by rising oil and natural gas revenues, greater domestic stability, and stronger state control over strategic sectors.

What contributed to Putin's high popularity during his first two presidential terms?

Economic recovery, improved stability, rising incomes for many Russians, and the perception that Russia was regaining international influence.

How did Putin seek to restore Russia's international status after the instability of the 1990s?

He pursued a more assertive foreign policy and emphasized Russia's status as a major power.

What was the political significance of Putin announcing that he would seek the presidency again in 2012 after serving as prime minister during Medvedev's presidency?

The announcement generated public criticism and protests among some Russians, reflecting dissatisfaction with political competition and the prospect of continued leadership by the same political circle.

What happened to political opposition and civil liberties under Putin according to the themes of the class slides?

Opposition groups faced restrictions, journalists and critics faced intimidation or violence, and concerns grew about limits on press freedom, civil rights, and judicial independence.

What series of bombings in Russian cities in 1999 killed hundreds of people and helped intensify the second Chechen conflict and Putin's rise to prominence?

1999 Russian Apartment Bombings

What military campaign began in 1999 when Russian forces entered Chechnya again after renewed conflict and attacks?

Second Chechen War

What happened when Russian forces captured the Chechen capital, Grozny, around 2000 during the second Chechen conflict?

The city suffered extensive destruction, and the federal government reestablished control over the region.

How did Putin respond to Chechen separatism and terrorism?

He adopted a hard-line military and security approach, emphasizing the restoration of federal authority and a crackdown on terrorism.

What was the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis, and why was it politically significant?

Chechen militants seized a theater and held hundreds hostage; Russian security forces ended the siege using a gas-based operation, and many hostages died. The crisis reinforced Putin's emphasis on security.

What happened during the 2004 Beslan school siege, and why is it important to understand?

Hostage-takers seized a school in North Ossetia; the siege ended with over 300 deaths, including many children. It intensified national concerns about terrorism and security.

What happened during the 2010 Moscow Metro suicide bombings?

Suicide bombers attacked Moscow Metro stations, killing dozens and highlighting the continuing threat of terrorism linked to the North Caucasus insurgency.

What was Putin's stated justification for his hard-line policy in Chechnya?

He argued that forceful action was necessary to defeat terrorism, restore order, and maintain Russia's territorial integrity.

Who was Mikhail Khodorkovsky, and why did his arrest become important in discussions of Putin's government?

A wealthy oil businessman and owner of Yukos who was arrested in 2003 and imprisoned on financial charges; critics argued the case demonstrated the government's ability to use the legal system against politically independent oligarchs.

What happened to Mikhail Khodorkovsky after his initial conviction?

He received a lengthy prison sentence, faced additional charges in 2008, and was released in December 2013 after Putin pardoned him.

What was Yukos, and why did its treatment become politically significant?

A major Russian oil company associated with Khodorkovsky that was broken up after legal proceedings; critics viewed the case as evidence of state pressure on independent business power.

Who was Anna Politkovskaya, and why is her murder significant for the study of Russian politics?

An investigative journalist who criticized Putin's policies and the Chechen conflict; she was murdered in 2006, and concerns about accountability and journalist safety followed.

What does the killing of journalists and critics illustrate about civil liberties in Russia?

Critics have faced threats, intimidation, and violence, contributing to concerns about press freedom, political accountability, and the safety of independent voices.

Who was Alexei Navalny, and why was he important to Russia's opposition movement?

An anti-corruption activist and opposition politician who publicly criticized Putin and government officials, organized protests, and faced repeated arrests and prosecutions.

What happened to Alexei Navalny in December 2014?

He received a suspended sentence in a fraud-related case, while his brother received a prison sentence; Navalny's supporters and other critics argued the case was politically motivated.

What broader political issue is illustrated by the cases of Khodorkovsky, Politkovskaya, and Navalny?

Concerns about judicial independence, political repression, restrictions on opposition, and the risks faced by government critics.

What type of legislature does Russia have, consisting of two chambers that participate in national lawmaking?

Bicameral Legislature / Federal Assembly

What is the lower chamber of Russia's Federal Assembly, made up of 450 deputies who pass federal laws and consider the national budget?

State Duma

How many deputies are in the State Duma, and how long is their current term?

450 deputies; five-year terms

What electoral system currently selects State Duma deputies?

A mixed electoral system: 225 seats are elected by proportional representation and 225 in single-member districts.

What role does the State Duma play in passing federal legislation?

It considers and passes federal bills, which generally then go to the Federation Council for review and then to the president.

What role does the State Duma play in approving the national budget?

It considers and adopts the federal budget as part of the legislative process.

What role does the State Duma play in approving the president's nomination for prime minister?

It considers the president's nominee; repeated rejections can allow the president to dissolve the Duma and call new elections under the constitutional procedure.

What power does the State Duma have concerning the government?

It can express no confidence in the government, although the president has significant authority in responding to such a vote.

What vote is generally required for the State Duma to override a presidential veto of a federal law?

A two-thirds vote of the total number of Duma deputies, followed by the required two-thirds vote in the Federation Council.

What is the upper chamber of Russia's Federal Assembly, which represents the constituent regions of the federation?

Federation Council

What is the Federation Council's basic role in the legislative process?

It reviews federal laws passed by the State Duma, including laws on the budget and taxation, and participates in other constitutionally assigned responsibilities.

How is the Federation Council composed under the basic regional representation system?

It includes representatives from Russia's constituent entities, generally two per region, with additional presidentially appointed senators permitted under constitutional rules.