Greek and Persia

Greek Geography & Political Structure

Rugged mountains covered 75% of Greece, dividing the land into isolated regions. Instead of a single unified empire, Greeks formed independent city-states (polis). Mild climate encouraged outdoor civic life and debate.

The Sea in Ancient Greece

With scarce farmland and difficult overland travel, Greeks relied on the Aegean, Ionian, and Black Seas for maritime trade, resources, and cultural exchange.

Minoans

Early trading civilization on the island of Crete (c. 3000 B.C.) that heavily influenced Mycenaean culture, writing systems (Linear A), and pottery designs.

Mycenaeans

Indo-European warrior-kings who settled on the Greek mainland (c. 2000 B.C.). Their fortified capital was Mycenae, and they fought in the Trojan War.

Linear A vs. Linear B

Linear A was the undeciphered writing system of the Minoans. Linear B was the adapted writing system of the Mycenaeans (deciphered as early Greek), which was lost during the Dark Age.

The Trojan War (1200s B.C.)

A 10-year war fought between the Mycenaean Greeks (led by King Agamemnon) and the trading city of Troy in Anatolia. Proved to have historical roots by archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann.

Agamemnon

Legendary king of Mycenae who commanded the unified Greek forces during the Trojan War; later featured in Homer's Iliad and Aeschylus's tragedies.

Dorians & The Greek Dark Age

Less-advanced people who moved into Greece around 1200 B.C. after Mycenae collapsed, causing a 400-year Dark Age (1150–750 B.C.) where Greeks temporarily lost the art of writing.

Homer & Arete

Blind storyteller who composed epic poems like the Iliad. Heroes demonstrated arete—the Greek ideal of virtue and excellence in battle or athletics.

Evolution of Athenian Government

Monarchy (single king) -> Aristocracy (wealthy nobles) -> Tyranny (rulers appealing to commoners) -> Limited Direct Democracy (rule by male citizens).

Draco (621 B.C.)

Athenian lawmaker who wrote Athens' first legal code. Punishments were extremely harsh (most crimes punished by death—origin of "draconian") and upheld debt slavery.

Solon (594 B.C.)

Athenian reformer who outlawed debt slavery, organized citizens into 4 classes by wealth, and allowed all male citizens to vote in the assembly.

Cleisthenes (500 B.C.)

"Father of Athenian Democracy" who broke up noble power by organizing citizens by location rather than wealth, let all citizens submit laws for debate, and created the Council of Five Hundred.

Pericles (Golden Age)

Athenian leader who strengthened direct democracy by paying salaries to public officials (so poor citizens could serve), expanded the navy, and built the Parthenon using Delian League funds.

Exclusions in Athenian Democracy

Citizenship was strictly limited to free adult males (18+) born in Athens to citizen parents. Women, slaves, and foreign residents (metics) were completely excluded.

Helots & Sparta's Transformation

Enslaved Messenian peasants who outnumbered Spartans 8 to 1. After a massive helot revolt around 650 B.C., Sparta transformed into a strict military state to prevent future uprisings.

Spartan Male Upbringing

Boys left home at age 7 to live in military barracks under harsh conditions (minimal clothing, coarse food, marching barefoot, encouraged to steal food without getting caught) and served in the army until age 60.

Spartan Women vs. Athenian Women

Spartan women received athletic training, had public freedom, owned property, and managed estates while men were at war. Athenian women had no formal schooling, stayed home managing households, and had virtually no public rights.

Persian Empire Governance

Centralized monarchy divided into provinces (satrapies) ruled by local governors (satraps), audited by surprise visits from royal inspectors ("the king's eyes and ears").

Persian Infrastructure & Economy

Used the 1,600-mile paved Royal Road for rapid communication/trade and standardized gold/silver coin currency (Daric).

Zoroastrianism & Persian Rule

Persian religion centered on a cosmic struggle between truth (Asha) and deceit (Druj) and final judgment. Unlike the harsh Assyrians, Persians practiced high religious and cultural tolerance toward conquered peoples.

Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.)

Outnumbered Athenian hoplites in phalanx formation defeated a 25,000-man Persian landing force. Pheidippides ran 26 miles to Athens to announce the victory.

Thermopylae & Salamis (480 B.C.)

At Thermopylae, 300 Spartans held off Xerxes' massive army for 3 days before being betrayed. At Salamis, smaller Greek warships destroyed over a third of the Persian navy in a narrow channel.

Delian League (478 B.C.)

Military alliance of ~200 Greek city-states originally headquartered on the island of Delos to defend against Persia. Athens took control, moved the treasury to Athens, and turned it into an Athenian Empire.

Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.)

War between Athens and Sparta sparked by Spartan fear of Athens' growing power. Sparta burned Athenian farmland; Pericles brought citizens inside city walls and relied on the navy.

The Plague of Athens

Struck crowded Athens in the 2nd year of the Peloponnesian War, wiping out one-third of the population—including Pericles—leading to Athens' eventual surrender to Sparta in 404 B.C.

Socrates, Plato, & Aristotle

Socrates questioned moral character ("The unexamined life is not worth living") and was executed for corrupting youth. His student Plato wrote The Republic (advocating philosopher-kings). Plato's student Aristotle developed formal logic.

Athenian Democracy CER Claim

While Athens pioneered direct democracy by expanding political participation for male citizens through reforms by Cleisthenes and Pericles, it remained a restricted democracy that excluded women, slaves, and foreigners.